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PREFACE. 



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This little work has been prepared to serve as an Introduction to 
the Author's "Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English 
language," The definitions and rules are the same, throughout, as 
in that work, and are arranged in the same order. 

The work is divided into Lessons, each of which is devoted to 
some one topic. The arrangement in each Lesson, is the same 
throughout ; except that the Questions on each Rule of Syntax are 
left to be framed by the teacher. That order is the following : The 
Definitions and Rules belonging to the Lesson, and intended to be 
committed to memory, are placed first, in large type. Next to these, 
any subordinate matter regarded as proper for so brief a compend, 
is subjoined in a smaller type, to be carefully read and sticdied with 
the Lesson. Then, a series of Questions so framed that correct 
answers will bring out all the leading facts contained in the pre- 
ceding text. And lastly, practical Exercises are subjoined, for the 
purpose of reducing immediately to practice, the knowledge ac- 
quired, and fixing it, in the easiest and most effectual manner, in the 
understanding. 

The Exercises in most of the Lessons, are capable of being used 
in a variety of ways ; and ample directions are given, as to the man- 
ner in which they are intended to be used. 

In Etymology, "Illustrations" are occasionally thrown in, to 
show in what manner important principles in Grammar may be sim- 
plified to the young learner; and, in Syntax, a plain and familiar 
i% Explanation" is subjoined to each Rule, for the same purpose. 

Prefixed to the Rules of Syntax, there has been introduced a num- 
ber of Lessons on the Analysis of Sentences. This useful exercise 
is presented in such a way as to be easily understood ; and to an 
extent sufficient for beginners ; and the whole illustrated by a num- 
ber of Models of Analysis, which will serve as a guide to the pupil 
in preparing his lessons in this department. 

As it is of great importance to keep the acquisitions of pupils 
already made, always at hand, and to impress them indelibly on their 



iv PREFACE. 

minds by repeated reviews of previous Lessons, it will be seen that 
directions are given at the beginning of each Lesson, for carrying 
this useful practice into effect., 

Another feature in this work is, that with the principles of Gram- 
mar, at every step, are combined instructions and exercises in the 
elementary principles of Composition. Analysis and Composition 
are carried on together. Directions for parsing each part of speech, 
with accompanying examples for practice, are given as soon as it has 
been treated of. And, in like manner, the proper method of com- 
bining words for the purpose of expressing our ideas, is pointed out, 
and Exercises are devised, as soon as the pupil has been made ac- 
quainted with the classes of words capable of being combined. One 
Exercise of this kind, sometimes more, is connected with almost 
every Rule of Syntax, as at once an exercise on the Rule, and a 
praxis on Composition. 

As Orthography belongs more strictly to the Spelling Book, and 
Prosody is a study for more advanced pupils than those for whom 
this work is intended, they are introduced here only for the sake of 
form, and of course little is said respecting them. Though this work 
is not intended to be a complete treatise on English Grammar, no 
pains have been spared to render it useful so far as it goes. It con- 
tains as much as any work of its size, presented in a neat and per- 
spicuous manner ; and moreover, possesses some new and peculiar 
features, which claim the candid attention and examination of all 
who feel an interest in simplifying the process of education to the 
youthful mind, and doing the most good in the shortest time, in the 
simplest and most pleasing manner, at the earliest period, and at the 
least expense. 

Those who commence the study of Grammar after the age of 
twelve or fourteen, stand in no need of this work. They should 
commence at once with the Analytical and Practical Grammar, 
which contains a complete course of English Grammar, without any 
other book, and is sufficiently simple for pupils of that age. But 
young pupils, by going through this, will enter, even at an earlier 
period, on the study of the larger Grammar with great advantage. 

N. B. The numbers in parentheses, as (109) p. 10, refer to the cur- 
rent numbers in the Analytical and Practical Grammar, where the 
subject is more fully treated. 

Troy, N. Y., August, 18G2. 



CONTENTS. 



Lesson. 

1 Definition and Division, 

PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2 Concerning Letters and Syllables, . 

PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 

3 Division of Words, 

4 Of Nouns, . . 

5 Of Person, .... 

6 Of Gender, 

7 Of Number, 

8 Of the Cases of Nouns, 

9 Of the Article, 

10 Of the Adjective, 

11 Comparison of Adjectives, . 

12 Of the Pronoun, 

13 Of Relative Pronouns, 

14 Of Adjective Pronouns, 

15 Exercises on Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns, 

16 Of Verbs, 

17 Division of Verbs, . 

18 Inflection of Verbs, 

19 Of the Moods, 

20 Of Tenses, or Distinctions of Time, 

21 Of the Participles, . 

22 Of Number and Person, 

23 Of the Conjugation of Verbs, 

24 The Verb u To Love," . 

25 Negative Form of ^he Verb, 

26 Interrogative Form of the Verb, 

27 Progressive Form of the Active Voice 

28 Passive Voice, . 

29 Of Irregular Verbs, 

30 Defective and Impersonal Verbs, 

31 Of Adverbs, 

32 Of Prepositions, 

33 Of Interjections, 

34 Of Conjunctions, 

35 How to Distinguish the Parts of Speech 

36 Parsing, 

37 Model of Etymological Parsing, 

38 Exercises in Parsing, . 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



51 Rule I. 


52 


II. 


53 


III. 


54 


IV. 


55 


V. 


56 


VI. 


51 


VII. 


58 


VIII. 


59 




60 


IX. 


61 


X. 


62 


XI. 


63 


XII. 


64 


XIII. 


65 


XIV. 


66 


XV. 


m 


XVI. 


68 


XVII 


69 


XVII 


70 


XIX. 


71 


XX. 



PART THIRD.— SYNTAX. 

39 General Principles of Syntax, , 

40 Analysis of Sentences, — Simple Sentences, 

41 The Subject; . , 

42 Modifications of the Subject, 

43 Modification of the Modifying Words, . 

44 The Predicate, .... 

45 Modifications of the Predicate, 

46 Compound Sentences, 

47 Connection of Clauses, . 

48 Abridged Propositions, 

49 Directions for Analysis, — Models, 

50 Construction of Sentences, — Parts of Syntax, 
Substantives in Apposition, 
An Adjective with a Substantive, 
The Article and its Noun, 
Personal Pronouns, . 
The Relative and its Antecedent, 
The Subject Nominative, 
The Nominative Absolute or Independent, 
The Verb and its Nominative, 
Special Rules under Rule VIII., 
The Predicate Nominative, &c, 
The Objective Governed by Verbs, 
The Objective Governed by Prepositions, 
Prepositions used after certain Words, 
The Possessive Case, . 
The Subjunctive Mood, . 
The Infinitive Mood, . 
The Participles, . 
Connection of Tenses, 

XVIII. Construction of Adverbs, 

Construction of Conjunctions, 
Interjections, . . o 

72 General Rule of Syntax, .... 

73 Ellipsis, Rule 1. — An Ellipsis admissible, 

74 " « 2. — Ellipsis not allowable, . 

75 Model of Syntactical Parsing, . 

76 Promiscuous Exercises for Correction, 

77 Punctuation, . 

78 Capitals, ...... 

PART FOURTH.— PROSODY. 

79 Prosody. Elocution, Versification, 

80 Composition, ..... 



136 
137 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Lesson 1 • — Definition and Division. 

[Commit Definitions and Rules accurately to memory,] 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English Language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
lesson 2. — Letters and Syllables. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

Orthography treats of letters, and the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the 
human voice. 

There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate sound ; 
and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The vowels are 
a, e, i, o, 7i, and w and y not before another vowel sounded in the 
same syllable, as in law, bay. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound ; and 
in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in connection 
with a vowel. The consonants are b, c, d, /, g, h, j, k, I, in, n, p, q, 
r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the same sylla- 
ble, as in war, youth. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound ; as, oit in out ) 
oi in oil . They are of two kinds, Proper and Improper. 



8 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; 
as, oy in boy, ou in round, oi in oil, ow in cow. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is 
sounded ; as oa in boat. 

A IHphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound ; as eau 
in beauty. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound uttered by one impulse of the voice, 
and represented by one or more letters ; as, farm, farm-er, ea-gle, 
a-e-ri-al. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable. 

A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by 
its proper letters. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is English Grammar ? Into how many parts is it divided ? 
Mention them. What is Orthography ? What is a letter? How 
many letters are there in English ? How are they divided ? What 
is a vowel ? — a consonant ? Name the vowels. When are w and y 
vowels ? When, consonants ? What is a diphthong ? — a proper diph- 
thong ? — an improper diphthong ? — a triphthong ? — What is a sylla- 
ble ? What is a word of one syllable termed ? — of two ? — of three ? — 
of four or more ? What is spelling ? 



PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 
IJessoil 3. — Division of Words. 

[Review the preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their 
derivations. 

A word is an articulate sound used by com- 
mon consent as the sign of an idea. Words 
are divided into different classes, called 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The parts of speech in the English lan- 
guage are nine ; viz., The Noun, Article, Ad- 
jective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
Interjection, and Conjunction. 

Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, are 
declined ; the rest are indeclinable. 

A Substantive is a noun, or any word or 
phrase used as a noun. 

Obs. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes 
of form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case, person, &c, usually terine-d in Grammar Accidents; 
as, man, men.; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form ; 
as, good, some, perhaps. 

ILLUSTRATION.— To speak is to say what we think. What one 
says in speaking is called speech or language. All speech is made up 
of words, each one of which has its own meaning and use. Any 
number of words properly arranged so as to express a thought, or 
make complete sense, is called a sentence. Words are divided into 
different sorts or classes called parts of speech, according to their 
meaning, and use in speaking, i. e. Some words are names of things 
and are called nouns ; some qualify or limit the meaning of nouns, 
and are called adjectives ; some stand instead of nouns, and are 
called pronouns, &c. [See above and the definitions of the different 
parts of speech.] To take the words of a sentence separately, and 
tell to what class of words each belongs and describe it, is called 
Parsing. Hence, 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into 
its elements or parts of speech. 

QUESTIONS. 

What does Etymology treat of? What are words? What are 
they divided into? What are these classes called? How many 
parts of speech are there ? Name them. Which are declinable ? 
Which are indeclinable ? What is a declinable word ? — an indeclin- 
able ? What is Parsing ? 



10 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

IJesson 4. — Nouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, John, London, hook. 

Nouns are either Proper or Common. 

A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, John, London, the Ohio. 

A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, man, table, book. 

A Substantive is a noun, or any word or 
phrase used as a noun (109). 

ILLUSTRATION. — Every thing of which a person can speak, 
hear, or think, has a name ; that name in grammar is called a noun. 
Names common to all things of the same sort or class, are called 
Common nouns ; as, Man, woman, day, river, city, country. 

Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not com- 
mon to all, are called Proper nouns ; as, John, Lucy, Friday, 
Thames, London, England. Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts 
or classes ; Proper nouns distinguish individuals. Thus, the noun 
" Man " is the name of a class or species, and is applied equally to 
all, or is common to all the individuals in that class. But "John" is 
a name that belongs only to certain individuals of that class, and not 
to others ; it is therefore not Common but Proper, i. e., belonging to 
an individual. 

A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase speak of, 
is a noun ; as, A man ; I speak of money. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Under common nouns are usually ranked, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude; as, army, people. 

2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety, wickedness. 

3. Verbal nouns, or names of actions ; as, reading, vjriting, 
sleeping. 

The accidents of nouns are Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. 



PERSON. 11 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? What is 
a common noun ? What is a proper noun • What part of speech 
are names of things? What is a collective noun? — an abstract 

noun ? a verbal noun? Are these nouns proper or common? 

What Accidents belong to nouns? 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the nouns in the following sentences ; say why they are 
nouns. Tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Exer- 
cises of this kind may be taken from any book. 

The table and chairs in this room belong to Robert. 
The houses and streets in New- York are larger than those in 
Albany. The principal cities in the State of New- York, 
are New- York, Albany, Utica, Rochester, and Buffalo. 
Wheat, corn, rye, and oats, are extensively cultivated. Ap- 
ples, pears, cherries, plums, and other fruits abound. 
George is older than John ; they both study arithmetic and 
grammar, 



Lessen 5. — Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Person, in grammar, denotes the relation of 
a noun or pronoun to what is said in discourse. 

The persons are three, First, Second, and 
Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it de- 
notes the speaker or writer; as, "I Paul have 
written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it de- 
notes the person or thing addressed ; as, "Thou, 
God, seest me " — " Hail Liberty" 

A noun is in the third person, when it de- 
notes the person or thing spoken of; as, " Truth 
is mighty." 



12 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — The first and the second person can belong only to nouns 
denoting persons, or things regarded as persons ; because such only- 
can speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong to all 
nouns ; because every object, whether person or thing, may be spo- 
ken of. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Person makes no ch'ange either in the mean- 
ing or the form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which 
it is used ; so that the same noun, without change, may be in the 
first person, or the second, or the third, according as it denotes the 
speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 
Moreover, as the name of the speaker or of the person spoken to, is 
seldom expressed (the pronoun /or thou being used in its stead), a 
noun is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and 
almost never in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun 
personified. For this reason, the mention of person as a property of 
the noun, may be omitted in parsing, except when it is of the first or 
second person, always taking it for granted, that it is of the third, 
unless otherwise mentioned. The distinction of nouns into proper 
and common, may also be omitted ; because no use is made of the 
distinction in the construction of a sentence. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is person ? How many persons are there ? What does the 
first denote? — the second? — the third? To what sort of nouns do 
the first and the second person belong ? Why ? To what does the 
third belong? Why? Does person make any difference in the 
meaning or the form of the noun? * What then does it denote ? Is 
the name of the speaker, or the person spoken to, often mentioned ? 
What words are used instead of them? 



Lesson 6. — Gender. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with re- 
gard to Sex. There are three genders, the 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, 
man, boy, — king, lion. 

Nouns denoting females are Feminine ; as, 
woman, girl; — queen, lioness. 



GENDER. 



13 



Nouns denoting neither males nor females 
are JS T eider ; as, book, house, field. 

There are three ways of distinguishing the 
sexes. 

1. By different words ; as, 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Hart 


roe 


Beau 


belle 


Horse 


mare 


Boy 


girl 


Husband 


wife 


Brother 


sister 


King 


queen 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Nephew- 


niece 


Drake 


duck 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


2. 


By a difference of Termination ; as, 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


actress 


Lion. 


lioness 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Baron 


baroness 


Peer 


peeress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Poet 


poetess 


Duke 


duchess 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 


empress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Executor 


executrix 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hero 


heroine 


Widower 


widow 


Host 


hostess 







3. By prefixing a distinguishing word ; as, 
Masc. Fern. 

A cock sparrow A hen sparrow 

A he goat A she goat 

A man servant A maid servant 

A male child A female child 

Male descendants Female descendants 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine ; as, parent, ser- 
vant, neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be of the common gender. 
2 



14 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are often converted by a figure of 
speech into the masculine or the feminine ; as, when we say of the 
sun, "He is setting;" of the moon, " She is eclipsed;" and of a 
ship, " She sails." 

3. Animals of inferior size, or whose sex is not known, are often 
spoken of as neuter. Thus, of a child we may say, " It is a lovely 
creature." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is gender ? How many genders are there ? What does 
the masculine gender denote ? — the feminine ? — the neuter ? What 
nouns are said to be masculine ? What, feminine ? What, neuter ? 
How many ways are there of distinguishing the sexes ? What are 
they ? When a noun denotes either a male or a female, of what 
gender is it sometimes said to be ? When the sex of animals is not 
known, of what gender are their names ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the preceding lists, tell the feminine of each masculine noun, 
and the masculine of each feminine. 

2. Tell the part of speech and gender of the following words ; 
thus, house, a noun, neuter; boy, a noun, masculine, &c. 

House, boy, stone, boot, cow, father, mother, sister, 
brother, daughter, aunt, nephew, niece, uncle, shepherd, 
paper, pen, ink, parent, neighbor, friend, lion, widow, baron, 
negro, hero, house, tree, bird, mouse, fly, &c. 



I^essoil 7. — Number. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Number is that property of a noun by which 
it expresses one, or more than one. 

Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and 
the Plural The Singular denotes one; the 
Plural, more than one. 



NUMBER. 15 

GENERAL RULE. 

The Plural is commonly formed by adding s 
to the singular; as book, books. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the 
plural by adding es,; as Miss, 31isses; brush, 
brushes; match, matches; topaz, topazes; fox, 
foxes; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo, io, and yo, and in ch sounding h, have .<? only; 
as, cameo, cameos; folio, folios; monarch, ?nonarchs. Also canto 
has cantos ; but other nouns in o after a consonant now commonly 
addes; as grotto, grottoes ; tyro, tyroes, &c. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y 
into ies in the plural; as Lady, ladies. 

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general 
rule; as. Day, days. 

Also, all proper nouns in y ; as, the Pompeys ; 
the Tidlys. 

3. Nouns in / or fe, change f or fe into ves 
in the plural; as, Loaf, loaves; life, lives. 

Exc. But dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 
mischief; gulf, turf, surf; fife, strife; proof, hoof, roof, reproof, fol- 
low the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in 5 ; as, 
muff, muffs ; except staff, which has sometimes staves. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
See An. and Pr. Gr., 155-160. 

1. Some nouns form the plural irregularly. They are the fol- 
lowing : — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men Tooth teeth 

Woman women Goose geese 

Child children Mouse mice 



16 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Singular. Plural Singular. Plural. 

Foot feet Louse lice 

Ox oxen Penny pence 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother (one of the same family) brothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 
Sow or swine sows or swine 

Die (for gaming) dice 

Die (for coining) dies 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp 

Court-martial courts-martial 

Cousin-german cousins-german 

Father-in-law, &c. fathers-in-law, &c. 

2. Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their original 
plural. As a general rule, nouns in urn or on have a in the plural ; 
but is, in the singular, is changed into es ; ex and ix,'mXo ices; us 
into i (154); as, 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Arcanum arcana Crisis crises 

Automaton automata Apex apices 

Axis axes Magus magi 

3. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race 
or family ; as the Stewarts ; or to several persons of the same 
name; as, the twelve Ccesars (161). 

4. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things weighed or 
measured, are mostly singular ; as, gold, meekness, temperance, milk, 
sugar, &c. 

5. Some nouns are plural only; as, annals, data, bellows, scis- 
sors, &c. 

6. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, trout, 
salmon, &c. 

1. Some nouns are plural in form; but in construction, either sin- 
gular or plural; as, amends, means, news, riches, pains; and the 
names of sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, &c. 

8. The article a or an before a singular noun, is dropped before 
the plural ; as, singular, a man ; plural men. 



NUMBER. 17 



QUESTIONS. 

What is meant by number ? How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote? — the plural? How is the plural 
commonly formed? When is the plural formed by adding es ? 
How do nouns in y after a consonant, form the plural? — after a 
vowel ? — nouns in / or fe ? When have proper names a plural ? 
What nouns are mostly singular? What nouns are plural only? 
What nouns are alike in both numbers? What nouns are plural 
in form, but either singular or plural in construction ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for 
forming it ; thus, " Chair, plural chairs." Rule, " The plural is 
commonly formed," &c. ; "Fox, plural foxes" R. " Nouns in s, 
sh," &c. * 

Chair, fox, table, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, 
arm, boy, girl; dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, day, 
toy, leaf, knife, wife, loaf. An apple (Obs. 8, above), a 
pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a bell. 

2. Write or spell the singular of the following plurals, and prefix 
the indefinite article : 

Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, 
tables, bushes, trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, 
churches, matches, mice, days, keys, staves, horses, mules, 
cows, sheep, goats, &c. 

3. Tell the plural of the following irregular nouns. 

Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, mouse; 
father-in-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fisherman, wash- 
erwoman, cousin-german, &c. 

4. Tell the gender and number of the following nouns ; give the 
plural and the rule for forming it; thus, " House," a noun, neuter, 
singular; plural, "houses." " The plural is commonly formed," &c. 

House, boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, empe- 
ror, governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, lord, box, 
bush, rush, goose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, loaf, study, 
coach, toy, mouth, watch, hero, church, tree, way, wife, half, 
fish, table, mother, apple, cherry, star, sun, moon, planet, 
earth, sky, mountain, river, sea, &c. 
2* 



18 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMARo 

Lesson 8. — Cases of Nouns. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative case commonly expresses 
that of which something is said, or declared ; 
as, The sun shines (164). 

The Possessive case denotes that to which 
something belongs; as, The lady's fan (165). 

The Objective case denotes the object of some 
action or relation; as, James assists Thomas; 
they live in Albany (166). 

The nominative and objective of nouns are 
alike. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding 
an apostrophe (') and s to the nominative; as, 
John's. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is 
formed by adding an apostrophe only; as, 
Ladies'. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED; 



Nom. Lady Ladies John 

Pass. Lady's Ladies' John's 

Obj. Lady Ladies John 



Proper names generally want the plural. 
Parsing. — A noun is parsed etymologically, 
by telling its gender, number, and case; thus, 



CASES OF NOUNS. 19 

Lady's, a noun, feminine, in the j)0ssessive sin- 
gular. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. 'When the nominative singular ends in 55, or letters of a similar 
sound, the I after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds; as, u for goodness' 
sake ; " "for conscience' sake." This however is seldom done, unless 
the word following begins with 5; thus we do not say "the prince* 
feather," but the " prince's feather." 

2. The objective case, with of before it, is generally equivalent 
to the possessive; thus, "the rage of the tyrant" and " the tyrant's 
rage" mean the same thing. Sometimes, however, the meaning will 
be different. [See An. & Pr. Gr. 176.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is case ? How many cases have nouns ? What does the 
nominative case express? — the possessive? — the objective? What 
two cases are alike? How is the possessive singular formed? — the 
possessive plural? 

EXERCISES. 

Gender, Number, and Case. 

Parse the following nouns by telling their gender, number, and case ; 
thus, "Father," a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.* 

Father, mother, sister's husband, brother's wife, uncle's 
house, Tom's books, city, virtue's reward, brother's widow, 

*In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which 
is all important, if. the pupil be taught to say every thing belong- 
ing to the noun in the fewest words possible ; and always in the 
same order as above. For the same reason, the distinction of nouns 
into proper and common may be omitted. And as person has 
nothing to do with the form of a noun, but only with its use ; and 
as nouns are almost always of the third person, the mention of per- 
son may be omitted, if the teacher chooses ; but when the noun is in 
the first or the second person, it should be mentioned. It will also 
be a profitable exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of 
his description; thus, Father, a nov.n^ because the name of an object; 
masculine, because it denotes the male sex ; singular, because it de- 
notes but one; plural, fathers. Rule, "The plural is commonly 
formed by adding a to the singular." 



20 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Washington the hero, the statesman, the father of his coun- 
try: carpenter, farmer, lawyer's fees, teacher's manual, 
scholar's assistant, ladies' gloves; beans, peas, plums, cher- 
ries, houses, lands, rivers, mountains, sun, nioon> stars; 
Heaven, earth, sky, &a 

[Review the whole thoroughly from the beginning, answering 
accurately all the questions.] 



Lesson 9. — The Article. 

An Article is a word put before a noun, to 
show the manner in which it is used. 

There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, be- 
cause it shows that its noun is used indefinitely, 
and not limited to a particular person or thing; 
as, a king, i. e., any king. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it 
shows that its noun is used definitely, and re- 
fers to a particular person or thing; as, the 
king, i. e., some particular King, known or 
described. 

A noun without an Article, is taken in its 
widest sense; as, Man is mortal; i. e., All 
mankind: Or, in an indefinite sense; as, There 
are men destitute of all shame, i. e.,some men. 

The is sometimes put before a noun denoting the species; as, the 
oak ; the lion (192). 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1. A is used before a consonant; as, A book, a house, a tree. 
Also, before words beginning with u long, and eu, because they 



THE ARTICLE. 21 

sound as if beginning with the consonant y ; thus, A unit, a use, a 
eulogy, — pronounced as if written, a yunit, a yuse, a yeulogy. 

2. An is used before a vowel or silent h; as, An age, an hour. 

3. A or an is used before the singular number only; the, before 
either the singular or the plural. 

Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating 
whether it is definite or indefinite, and men- 
tioning the noun to which it belongs; thus, 

A book. A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to u 6oo&." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an article ? How many articles are there ? What is A 
or An called? Why? What. is The called? Why? In what 
sense is a noun without an article taken ? What is A used before ? 
What is An used before? How is the article parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

Is it proper to say a man, or an man ? and why ? 
a apple, or an apple ? and why ? 
# a house, or an house? and why? 

a hour, or an hour ? and why ? 

Prefix the indefinite article in the proper form to the following 
words : 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, 
egg, ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, 
word, book, pot, bench, open wagon, round stone, old hat, 
penny trumpet, ice house, house, honor, hopeful boy, honest 
man, &c. See An. & Pr. Gr. 187. 

Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change ; 
parse the articles. 

An cup, an door, a apple, an pear, an hat, an wig, an 
eulogy, a honor, an crow, a ostrich, an pen, a ugly beast, 
an pretty beast, an pretty thing, an huge monster, a upper 
room, a ice house, an nice house, an humorous poem, a open 
wagon, an hard nut. &c. 



22 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Lesson 10. — Tlie Adjective. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify a 
substantive ; as, A good boy ; a square box ; ten 
dollars. He is poor. To lie is base (196). 

For the word Substantive, see Lesson 4. 

Adjectives denoting number, are called Nu- 
meral adjectives. Of these, there are two 
classes ; the Cardinal, and the Ordinal. 

The Cardinal are one, two, three, &c., and 
express how many — written in figures, thus, 
1, 2, 3, &c. 

The Ordinal, are first, second, third, &c, and 
express which one of a number — written in 
figures, thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. — A noun, or the name of a thing being men- 
tioned without qualification, brings before the mind the idea of the 
thing itself. Thus, the word " horse," for example, suggests the 
idea of the animal so called. But if we wish to describe or point oft 
a particular horse more definitely, and to distinguish it from others 
of the same species, we qualify the term, (196); i. e., we connect 
with the name or noun a word denoting some property, or quality, 
or circumstance by which it maybe known or distinguished; as, "a 
little horse;" "an old horse;" u a black horse;" "an American 
horse," &c. Words used for this purpose are called Adjectives, 
Sometimes several of these may be joined with the same noun; as, 
when we say, "a little old black horse;" "a smooth white round 
stone ; " " the good old way." 

In any phrase or sentence, the adjective qualifying a noun may 
generally be found by prefixing the expression, "What" or "What 
kind of," to the noun in the form of a question ; as, What kind of a 
horse? What kind of a stone? What kind of a way? The word 
containing the answer to the question is an adjective. 

It may assist the " young beginner" also to remember, that a word 
which makes sense with the word thing after it, is an adjective ; thus 
good, bad, little, round, may be adjectives, because we can say. a 
good thing, a bad thing, a little thing, &c. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 23 

OBSERVATIONS, 

1. Other parts of speech, when used to qualify or limit a noun, or 
pronoun, perform the part of an adjective, and should be parsed as 
such ; as, A gold ring, a he bear, the then king, the above remark, 
&c. 

2. Adjectives are often used as nouns; as, "God rewards the 
good and punishes the bad." "The virtuous are the most happy." 
Adjectives thus used are regarded as plural, because they denote 
more than one. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an adjective? What are adjectives denoting number 
called? What is a numeral adjective? How many classes of nume- 
ral adjectives are there ? What are the cardinal numbers ? What 
do they express ? What are the ordinal numbers ? What do they 
express ? When do nouns or other parts of speech become adjec- 
tives? Are adjectives ever used as nouns? Of what number are 
they considered? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, 
and then the adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so. 

A round table, a pretty dog, a little mouse, a low chair, 
a small book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty books, ugly 
faces, a beautiful flower, a rich man, fresh fish, a wild horse, 
a short man, an old hat, a fierce dog, a good pen, a wise 
king, an honest man, tame rabbits, a fine day, a sweet 
apple, a long stick, a little handsome old woman, a thick 
square book, a large white cat, a new book, a clean white 
frock, a full cup, an empty mug, a warm room, a wet towel, 
a cold rainy night, a cloudy sky, windy weather, hard frost, 
deep snow. 

2. In the above Exercises, let the pupil take each noun and prefix 
to it as many adjectives as he can think of, so as to make sense : as, 
for example, "table," high table, low table, long table, &c. &c., and 
in reciting put the emphasis on the adjective. 

3. Let him take each adjective, and add to it as many nouns as he 
can think of, so as to make sense ; as, " round," a round ball, a round 
hole, a round house, a round cake, etc., and put the emphasis on the 
noun. 



24 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Lesson 1 1 . — Comparison of Adjectives. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

Adjectives for the most part have three forms, 
called degrees of comparison; the Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses the quality simply ; 

The Comparative expresses the quality in a higher degree in one 
object than in another ; 

The Superlative expresses the quality in the highest degree in one 
object compared with two or more. 

Adjectives of one syllable form the compa- 
rative by adding er to the positive; and the 
superlative, by adding est; as sweet, sweeter, 
sweetest. 

Adjectives ending in e mute, drop e before 
er and est; as, large, larger, largest (68).. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are 
commonly compared by prefixing more and 
most; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beau- 
tiful. 

To these rules there are some exceptions. — Adjectives of two syl- 
lables are sometimes compared by er and est; as, "our tenderest 
cares"; a happier state ; and adjectives of one syllable are some- 
times compared by prefixing more and most; as, more wise, most fit, 
&c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by er 
and est ; as, able, abler, ablest. After a consonant, y is changed into 
i before er and est ; as, dry, drier, driest ; happy, happier, happiest ; 
But y with a vowel before it, is not changed; as, gay, gayer, 
gayest 

2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the end 
of the word ; as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, foremost, hind- 
most, utmost. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIYIIS. 



25 



3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est ; as, hot, 
hotter, holgst (60). 

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz. : 

1st. Such as denote number ; as, one, two; third, fourth. 

2d. figibre or shape; as, circular, square. 

3d. posture, or position; as, perpendicular, 

horizontal. 
4th. Those of an absolute or superlative signification ; as, true, 
perfect, universal, chief, extreme, kc. (224). 

5. Some adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows : 

IRREGULARLY. 

Superlative. 
best 
worst 
least 
most 

latest or last 
nearest or next 
farthest 

foremost or first 
oldest or eldest 

6. Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; many to those 
that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons only, 
older and oldest, to either persons or things. 

QUESTIONS. 

How many degrees of comparison are there? What does the 
positive denote? — the comparative? — the superlative? How are 
monosyllables compared ? — words of more than one syllable ? — dis- 
syllables in le after a mute ? — in y after a consonant ? What sort 
of adjectives double the final consonant before er and est? What 
adjectives are not compared? What adjectives are compared irreg- 
ularly? 

Parsing. — Adjectives are parsed by stating 
their class (if numerals), the degree of com- 
parison, and the noims which they qualify. 





ADJECTIVES COMPARED 


Posit i 


ve. 


Comparative. 


Good 




better 


Bad, evil 


or ill 


worse 


Little 




less 


Much or 


many 


more 


Late 




later 


Near 




nearer 


Far 




farther 


Fore 




former 


Old 




older or elder 



26 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adjectives in the following Exercise ; mrse them ; 
compare them; thus, a good father; u Good," an adjec^e, positive 
degree, qualifies "father," compared irregularly, good, better, best. 

2. Point out the nouns, and parse them by telling their gender, 
number, and case, as directed; thus, "father," a noun, masculine, in 
the nominative singular. 

A good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, wild 
horses, young colts, a sweeter apple, the wisest prince, green 
trees, the honest farmers, the most virtuous people, the 
richer tradesman, the better scholar, the tallest girl, the 
finer sheep, large oranges, the merriest fellows, the old sol- 
dier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the tamest rabbits, the little 
mouse, the longest stick, a wider table, a most excellent 
thing, the highest house, the most fruitful garden. 

Numerals. — Four men, the fourth day, six days, the 
seventh day, 365 days, ten horses, the first time; — of four 
houses, the first is of wood; the second, of stone; the third 
and the fourth, of brick. 

3. Turn back, and go over the adjectives in the exercise, Lesson 
10, in the same way. 

4. In both exercises, change singular nouns into plural, and plural 
into singular ; give the rule for the plural, and then read the phrase 
so changed; thus, Father, pi. fathers. "The plural is commonly 
formed by adding s to the singular,'' good fathers. 



Ijesson 12* — Pronouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; 
as, John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his 
studies. 

Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; 
Personal, Relative, Interrogative/ and Adjec- 
tive. 

ILLUSTRATION.— Pronouns are used simply to avoid the too 
frequent and consequently disagreeable repetition of the nouns for 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 27 

which they stand. Thus, instead of saying, John is a good boy; 
John is diligent in Johris studies ; we use the pronoun, and say as 
above, " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." In the 
use of pronouns, care should be taken to arrange the sentence in 
such a way as to leave no doubt to what noun a pronoun refers. 

The four classes of pronouns are used in different ways, as will be 
seen under each. 

The Accidents of Personal, Relative, and 
Interrogative pronouns, like nouns, are Per- 
son, Gender, Number, and Case. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns are those which distin- 
guish the person by their form. They are 
either simple or compound. 

1. The simple personal pronouns are /, thou, 
he, she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, 
they. 

1 is of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 

TJiou is of the second person, and denotes the person addressed. 

He, she, it, are of the third person, and denote the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined: 







SINGULAR. 






PLURAL. 








Nom. 


Poss. 


Ohj. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Ohj. 


1. 


m. or/. 


I 


mine 


me 


We 


ours 


us 


2. 


m. or f. 


Thou 


thine 


thee 


You 


yours 


you 


3. 


masc. 


He 


his 


him 


They 


theirs 


them 


3. 


fern. 


She 


hers 


her 


They 


theirs 


them 


3. 


neut. 


It 


its 


it 


They 


theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, ice is 
frequently applied to one person. 

2. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the singu- 
lar and the plural, and has always a plural verb. TJiou is used only 
in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in nature ; or to 



28 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

mark special emphasis ; or, in the language of contempt. The plu- 
ral form, ye, is now but seldom used. 

3. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the third 
person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons ; as, It is I, it 
is we, it is you, it is they ; It was she, &c. 

4. The possessive case of the pronoun can not, like the possessive 
of the noun, be followed by the name of the thing possessed. Thus, 
we can say, Mary's book, but not " hers book ;" and yet we can say 
equally well, " It is Mary's" or, " it is hers." In both these last ex- 
pressions, the name of the thing possessed is not expressed but im- 
plied. [See An. & Pr. Gr. 241.] 

5. Hers, its, oars, yours, theirs, should never be written her^s it\ 
our's, your's, their's. 

2. The compound personal pronouns are 
Myself, thyself himself herself itself; with 
their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

These pronouns are used, without .change of form, in the nomina- 
tive and the objective case. In the nominative they are emphatic, 
and are added to their respective personal pronouns or nouns, or are 
used instead of them; as, "I myself did it ;" " himself shall come." 
In the objective, they are reflexive, showing that the agent is also the 
object of his own act; as, "Judas went and hanged himself" Our- 
self and yourself are used as compounds corresponding to we and 
you applied to individuals; as, "We ourself will follow." "You 
must do it yourself" 

Paksing. — The personal pronouns may be 
parsed briefly thus; / is a pronoun of the 
first person, masculine (or feminine), in the 
nominative singular. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a pronoun? How are pronouns divided? What is a 
personal pronoun ? Why is it called personal I What are they ? 
Decline the first — the second — the third. Of what person is 1$ — 



PRONOUNS. 29 

th ou t — he, she, it / What does the first person denote ? — the sec- 
ond? — the third? To what class do myself ] thyself \ &c, belong? 
In what cases are they used ? How are they applied in the nomina- 
tive ? — in the objective ? How is you applied ? — thou? — it ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Go over the following list of pronouns and tell their person. 
Go over them again and tell their gender : again, and tell their num- 
ber : again, and tell their case : and lastly, tell their gender, number, 
and case, together. 

1. thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, 
them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, 
them, us, we, thou, thine, ye, ours, yours. Himself, your- 
selves, herself, themselves, ourself, yourself, itself. 

2. Point out the pronouns in the following Exercise. Parse them 
by telling their person, gender, number, and case ; thus, u me," a 
pronoun, first person, masculine, in the objective, singular. 

3. Point out the nouns and parse them ; the adjectives and parse 
them. Compare them. 

4. Read over each sentence, and tell what each of the pronouns 
stands for ; thus, me stands for the speaker ; you for the person spo- 
ken to, &c. 

Give me the pears you bought of him ; I like them bet- 
ter than the apple he bought; it was sour. She told us 
what we said to her, and they heard her. Put it on, will 
you ? He likes them because they are sweet. Take them 
to John. I gave them to her. We will do it, if you wish. 
The men said they would do it. The girl said she did not 
know them. The boy thought he knew them. You and I 
went with them to meet her after she had seen him. He 
and I can do it, though you can not. James bought that 
book ; it is therefore his, and not hers. 

"Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth." 
" Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be 
long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee." 
" As ye would that others should do to you, do ye even so 
to them." 

5. Take any easy reading lesson, and go over it in the same way. 

3* 



30 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



liCssom 13. — Relative Pronouns. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

1. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates 
to, and connects its clause with, a noun or pro- 
noun before it, called the antecedent; as, "The 
master who taught us." 

The antecedent is commonly a noun or pronoun; sometimes a 
phrase, or clause of a sentence ; as, 
The boy who reads ; 
He who does well, will be rewarded ; 
James is sicJc y which accounts for his absence. 

2. The relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, and what Who and which are alike in 
both numbers ; and are thus declined : 





Sing, and Plur. 


Sing, and Plur. 


Nom. 


Who 


Which 


Poss. 


Whose 


Whose 


Obj. 


Whom 


AVhich 



3. Who is applied to persons ; as, the boy 
who reads : 

And also to inferior animals, and things without life, when they 
are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

4. Which is applied to inferior animals, and 
things without fife ; as, the dog which barks ; 
the book which was lost: 

And also to collective nouns composed of persons ; as, u the court 
of Spain, which ;" " the company which." And likewise after the 
name of a person used merely as a word; as, "The court of Queen 
Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as w ell as things, and is so 
used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

5. T)M is often used as a relative, instead 
of who or which. It is indeclinable, and ap- 
plied both to persons and things. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. • 31 

6. What is applied to tilings only, and is 
never used but when the antecedent is omit- 
ted; as, "This is what I wanted "= that which 
I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS OX THE RELATIVE. 

1. The office of the relative is twofold. — 1st. It is used to connect 
its clause with the antecedent for the purpose of further describing 
it. Thus used, it is said to be additive; as, "Light is a body which 
moves with great celerity "=and it moves, &c. 2d. It is used to con- 
nect its clause with the antecedent for the purpose of limiting or re- 
stricting it like an adjective or adjunct. Thus used, it is said to be 
restrictive; as, "The man who is good is happy "=The good man is 
happy (267). 

2. ]V7ioever, whosoever, whatever, and whatsoever, are used as com- 
pound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a general, or 
indefinite antecedent ; as, " Whosoever committeth sin, is the servant 
of sin;" that is, " any one," or " every one who committeth sin," &c. 
"Whatsoever things are of good report;" i. e. "All things (without 
exception) which are of good report." [See An. & Pr. Gr. 752.] 

3. Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives, and have a 
noun following them; as, "Tell me what books you are reading;" 
" Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which applies either 
to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these. 

4. Who, and also which and what, without a noun following, are 
sometimes used as indefinite pronouns ; as, I do not know who will 
be our next President. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what? when used in asking 
questions, are called Interrogative pronouns. 

As interrogatives, ivho is applied to persons 
only ; which and what, either to persons or 
things. What is indeclinable. 



32 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Who, tohicJi, and tohat, used responsively, 
are indefinite pronouns; as ; "I know who wrote 
that letter." 

Parsing. — The relative is parsed by stating 
its gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the 
gender and number being always the same as 
those of the antecedent) thus : 

"The boy who." — u Who" is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the 
nominative singular, and refers to "boy" as its antecedent. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a relative pronoun? What is the word to which it relates 
called ? What is the proper use of the relative pronoun ? What are 
the relative pronouns ? What is who applied to ? What is which ap- 
plied to? Why is that used as a relative? To what is it applied? 
What sort of a relative is what? What does it include? What sort 
of words are whoever, &c. ? When which and zohat are followed by 
nouns, what part of speech are they ? What are the interrogative 
pronouns ? Why are they called interrogative ? As an interroga- 
tive, what is who applied to ?— which ? — what ? In parsing the rela- 
tive, what is mentioned ? How are the gender and number of the 
relative known ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. 13 it proper to say — the man who, or the man which? why ? 

the dog who, or the dog which? why? 

the tree who, or the tree which ? why ? 
the family who, or the family which ? why ? 

2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the 
word to which it relates ; also the interrogatives. 

8. What is the use of the relative in the first sentence ? in the 
second? in the third? &c. (See Obs. 1, p. 31.) 

The boy who studies will improve. I love the man who 
tells the truth, but all hate him who deals in falsehood. Do 
you remember the man whom we met ? There is the book 
which you lost. It is the same book that you bought. That 
is the lady who has been kind to us, and whose hand is ever 
open to the poor. It is the hand of the diligent that mak- 
eth rich. He that giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. 
The temple which Solomon built. Who gave you that 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 33 

book, which you prize so much ? Which house is yours ? 
He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I 
am, and whom I serve, is eternal. 



Lesson 14. — Adjective Pronouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns; 
viz., the Possessive, Distributive, Demonstra- 
tive, and Indefinite. 

1. The Possessive pronouns are such as de- 
note possession. They are my, thy, his, her, 
our, your, their, its, oion. 

2. The Distributive pronouns represent ob- 
jects as taken separately. They are each, 
every, either, neither. (See An. & Pr. Gram. 
297-301). 

3. The Demonstrative pronouns point out 
objects definitely. They are this and that, 
with their plurals, these and those. 

4. The Indefinite pronouns denote persons 
or things indefinitely. They are none, any, 
all, such, whole, some, both, one, other. The 
two last are declined like nouns. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. These pronouns are called adjective, because, like adjectives, they 
either are, or may be, followed by a noun which they qualify or 
limit. 

2. Possessive pronouns have the same meaning as the possessive 
case of the personal pronouns to which they relate, but are used dif- 
ferently. The possessive pronoun must always have a noun after it, 



34 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

the possessive case of the personal, never, as it always refers to a 
noun previously expressed ; thus, 

Possessive Pronoun. Possessive Case. 

This is my book ; This book is mine. 

That is her pen ; That pen is hers. 

This is your hat ; This hat is yours. 

It is their house ; The house is theirs. 

Note. — Own is added to another possessive to make it emphatic; 
as, "my own" " their own" "the boy's own book." 

3. His and her, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns ; not 
followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns. 

4. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, and 
sometimes a conjunction ; thus, 

Bern. That book is mine. 

Pel. It is the same that I bought. 

Conj. I read, that I may learn. 

5. Among indefinites may also be reckoned such words as no, few, 
many, several, and the like ; — the compounds whoever, whatever, 
whichsoever, &c, and who, which, and what, in responsive sentences 
(284). 

6. None is used in both numbers ; but it cannot be joined to a 
noun. 

Parsing. — Adjective pronouns are parsed by 
stating their class, and the word which they 
qualify; thus, 

" My book." My is a possessive adjective pronoun ; and qualifies 
"book." 

QUESTIONS. 

How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there ? Name them. 
Why called adjective pronouns? What is a possessive pronoun? 
Name the possessive pronouns. What is a distributive pronoun? 
Name them — A demonstrative pronoun ? Name them — An indefi- 
nite pronoun ? Name them. In what are possessive pronouns and 
the possessive case of personal pronouns the same? In what do 
they differ? Give an example of the use of each. How is "own" 
used? When are his and her possessives? — when personals? In 
how many different ways is "that" used? How is "none" used? 
How are adjective pronouns parsed? 



PRONOUNS. — GENERAL EXERCISES. 35 



EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjective pronouns, and 
parse them ; the nouns, and parse them : 

My book, her shoes, your horse, their father, his brother, 
every hour, that table, these quills. This is my book ; that 
book is yours. Where is my hat ? These apples are good ; 
give some to your brothers. I will give one to each. I 
have given them all away, every one. Every day try to 
do good to some person. This book will do as well as that 
one. Every boy should keep his own books. Do good to 
all men — injury to none. 



6 



Lesson 15.— Exercises on Nouns, Articles, Ad- 
jectives, and Pronouns. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the articles, and parse 
them; — the nouns, and parse them; — the adjectives, and parse 
them ; — the pronouns, and parse them : 

I found my hat upon your table ; but where is yours ? 
Who put that glove in my cap ? Have you seen the book 
which my father gave to me ? That rod of yours is longer 
than mine, but not so long as John's. Those trees have lost 
their leaves. Every book on that shelf is mine ; I will give 
you a list of them. Keep this knife for my sake ; it is a 
good one. All men are mortal ; time waits for no one ; a 
wise man will improve every moment to some useful pur- 
pose. An idle man will come to poverty ; but he that is 
diligent increases his store. They that walk with the wise 
shall be wise ; but a companion of fools shall be destroyed. 
Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would 
borrow of thee, turn not thou away. 

[1. Review thoroughly from Lesson 10, answering promptly and 
accurately all the questions. 

2. Review from the beginning, reciting accurately all the defini- 
tions and rules, and answering the questions. This may require two 
or three recitations.] 



36 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR, 

JLe§§OEt 16, — Verbs. 

1. A Verb is a word used to express the act, 
being, or state of its subject ; as, I ivrite ; he 
is; time flies. 

2. Verbs are of two kinds ; Transitive and 
Intransitive. 

3. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done 
by one person or thing to another ; as, James 
strikes the table ; The table is struck by 
James. 

4. An Intransitive Verb expresses the being, 
or state of its subject, or an act not done to 
another ; as, I am, he sleeps, you run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the verb in simple sentences is, to affirm or declare. 
That of which it affirms or declares is called its subject, or nominative. 

2. Transitive verbs include all those which express an act that 
passes over from the actor to an object acted upon ; as, He loves -us. 
Here, "He ? is the actor, "loves" expresses the act, and us, the ob- 
ject loved, or acted upon. The same thing can be expressed by an- 
other form ; thus, " We are loved by him." Of these two forms of 
the verb, the first is called the active voice, and the second, the pas- 
sive voice. 

Intransitive verbs include all verbs not transitive, whether they 
express action or not ; and they have only one form, namely, that 
of the active voice ; as, I am ; you walk ; they run. A few have 
the passive form, but the sense is the same in both ; as, "Jam come," 
and, "I have come." 

3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, by adding 
a noun of the same, or similar signification with themselves, as an 
object ; thus, intransitive, I run ; transitive, I run a race. 

4. The same verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and some- 



VERBS. 37 

times in an intransitive sense; thus, transitive, " Charity tlrinkcth no 

evil;" intransitive, "Think on me." 

5. Transitive and intransitive verbs may be distinguished by the 

sense, as follows : 

1st. A transitive active verb requires* an object after it to complete 
the sense ; as, The boy studies grammar. An intransitive verb 
requires no object after it, but the sense is complete without it ; as, 
He sits, you ride. 

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
form, thus, "James strikes the table," can be changed into "The 
table is struck by James." But the intransitive verb can not be so 
changed ; thus, I smile, can not be changed into I am smiled. 

3d. In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three things 
implied ; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use 
of the intransitive, there are only two — the subject or thing spoken 
of, and the state or action attributed to it. 

ILLUSTRATION. — The verb is the most important part of speech. 
It is a necessary word in every sentence. Without it, we can neither 
affirm nor deny, nor express any fact or thought. It was therefore 
called the Verb, that is, the word, by way of eminence, or of all 
others the most important. As we wish to express an act or state 
in a great variety of ways ; as present, past, future, actual, contin- 
gent, conditional, <fec, so there is a great variety of forms assumed 
by the verb in order to express these things. It is, therefore, very 
necessary for the pupil to be well acquainted with this part of speech. 
At this stage, two things must be attended to ; both of them very 
important. 

1. The first thing is, to distinguish the verb from every other part 
of speech. This can easily be done, if the pupil will only remember 
that every word that tells us what a person or thing does, or what is 
done to a person or thing, is a verb. Thus, when we say, "John 
writes;" " the boys study ; " "the dog was killed;" we know that 
"writes" is a verb, because it tells us what "John" does; that 
"study" is a verb, because it tells us what "the boys" do; and that 
"was killed" is a verb, because it tells us what was done to "the 
dog;" and so of others. 

2. The second thing is, to know when a verb is transitive, and 
when intransitive. Now, when the verb tells what one person or 
thing does to another, or what is done to one person or thing by an- 
other, the verb is transitive. Thus, when it is said, "James eats 
apples," we know, first, that u eats" is a verb, because it tells 
what James does ; and secondly, that it is transitive, because it tells 
what James does to the apples. 

4 



38 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

But when that which a person or thing does, is not done to an- 
other person or thing, the verb is intransitive. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, "James runs," we know that "runs" is a verb., because it 
tells what James does ; and that it is intransitive, because what James 
does is not done to any other person or thing. 

3. Verbs that denote merely to be or exist, are always intransitive. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a verb ? How many classes of verbs are there ? What 
is a transitive verb ? — an intransitive ? What is the use of the verb 
in simple sentences ? What is the subject of a verb? What does 
the word transitive mean ? — intransitive ? How many voices has the 
transitive verb ? — the intransitive ? How do you know which word 
in a sentence is a verb ? How do you know whether it is transitive 
or intransitive ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the verbs, and tell how you 
know them to be verbs; thus, "learn" is a verb, because it tells us 
what "boys" do; "rides" is a verb, because it tells us what "a man" 
does, &c. 

2. Tell which verbs are transitive, and which intransitive, and how 
you know them to be so; thus, "learn" is transitive, because it tells 
what "boys" do to lessons; "rides" is intransitive, because what "a 
man" does, is not done to any other person or thing. 

Boys learn lessons. A man rides. We read a book. 
My dog barks. The fire burns. The fire burns me. He 
took their apples. You saw them. We touched it. They 
strike her. I threw a stone at his window. They killed 
my rabbit. The horses eat . their corn. The cows drink 
water. I can ride well. A ride improves the health. 
That man walks fast. A long walk tires me. I love her 
and you. 

In the following sentences, it takes two, and sometimes three words 
to make the verb ; and these two or three are always parsed together 
as one word. 

I will water the garden. James can write a letter. You 
may ride on my horse. Robert will give a book to you. 
Yes, he will give you a book. You must light the candle. 
Your father has sold his horse. I have bought him. John 
will brush your coat. He should have brushed it before. 
James will have written his letter before night. He may 
have written it already. 



DIVISION OF VERBS. o l J 

Ii€§sou 17. — Division of Verbs. 

[Review thoroughly the preceding Lesson.] 

1. In respect of form, verbs are divided into 
Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

2. A Regular Verb is one that forms its 
Past tense in the Indicative active, and its 
Past participle by adding eel to the Present ; 
as, Present, act ; Past, acted ; Past participle, 
acted. 

Verbs ending in e mute drop e before ed ; as, love, loved, loved. 

3. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
form its Past tense in the Indicative active, 
and its Past participle by adding ed to the 
Present; as, Present, write; Past, wrote; Past 
participle, written* 

A Defective Verb is one in which some of 
the parts are wanting. To this class belong 
chiefly Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, are those 
by the help of which verbs are inflected. 
They are the following, which, as auxiliaries, 
are used only in the present and the past 
tense ; viz. : 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must. 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, . 

The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all 
its tenses. 

Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs. 



40 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The auxiliary (or helping) verbs are so called, because, by their 
help, the verb is enabled to express varieties of time and manner of 
acting or being, which it could not do without them. The auxiliary 
always stands before its verb, and the two are regarded in parsing as 
one word ; as, I will write, he has written, we may write, &c. 

2. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation ; will, pur- 
pose or resolution ; may, liberty ; can, ability. The past tense of 
these verbs is should, woxdd, might, could; but still they express time 
very indefinitely. 

3. In affirmative sentences, will, in the first person, intimates res- 
olution and promising; as, "I will go;" in the second and third, it 
commonly foretells; as, " Yow will be happy." 

Shall, in the first person, only foretells ; as, " I shall go to-mor- 
row ; " — in the second and third, it promises, commands, or threat- 
ens; as, "Thou shalt not steal" (335—344). 

QUESTIONS. 

How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 
verb ? — an irregular verb ? — a defective verb ? What are the princi- 
pal defective verbs ? Why are auxiliary verbs so called ? What 
verbs are principal verbs as well as auxiliary ? How are the auxilia- 
ries shall and will distinguished? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Put the following regular verbs into the Past tense and Past 
participle : 

Fear, love, look, hope, show, learn, move, wash, clean, 
walk, desire, return, oblige, form, force, punish, support, 
turn, touch, disturb, place, try, deny, cry, delay. 

2. Change the following verbs from the Past tense into the 
Present : 

Marked, protected, composed, favored, turned, hated, 
mixed, believed, wounded, rushed, preached, hunted, crushed, 
warned, pleaded, loved, ended. 

3. In the following list, tell which verbs are regular, and which are 
irregular ; and why : 



INFLECTION OF VEEBS. 



II 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Spoil 

Go 

Take 


spoiled 

went 

took 


spoiled 

gone 

taken 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Hope 
Run 


hoped 
ran 


hoped 
run 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Spy 

Obey 


spied 
obeyed 


spied 
obeyed 


Lesson 


1 8 . — Inflecti 


on of Verbs. 



[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

The Accidents of Verbs are Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons ; — also Parti- 
ciples. 

OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb, which 
shows the relation of the subject or thing spo- 
ken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

Transitive verbs have two voices, called the 
Active and the Passive. 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acting upon some object; as, 
James strikes the table. 

Here the verb " strikes," in the active voice, indicates what its 
subject, "James" does to the object, table. 

2. The Passive Voice represents the subject 
of the verb as acted upon by some person or 
thing ; as, The table is struck by James. See 
Lesson 28. 

Here the verb "is struck" in the passive voice, indicates what is 
done to the subject, "table" by James. 
4* 



42 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

3. Intransitive verbs have not a passive 
voice. A few admit a passive form, but not a 
passive sense ; thus, I am come, means the 
same thing as, I have come. 

4. When a verb, usually intransitive, is 
made transitive [Lesson 16, Obs. 3], it is then 
capable of a passive voice; as, "My race is 
rmi" 

ILLUSTRATION. — Both the active and the passive voice express 
precisely the same act, but each in a different way. With the active 
voice, the subject, that is, the person or thing spoken of, does the 
act, or is active ; with the passive voice, the subject is acted upon, or 
is passive. The words active and passive then strictly belong to the 
subject, but are properly used to distinguish those voices or forms of 
the verb which show that the subject acts, or is acted upon: that is, 
the form of the verb which represents its subject as active, is called 
the Active voice ; and that which represents its subject as passive, is 
called the Passive voice. 

Remembering, then, that the subject or nominative of a verb is 
the person or thing spoken of, when, in any sentence, we see that 
that subject acts, we know that the verb is in the active voice; thus, 
when we say, u Caesar conquered Gaul," we see that ''Caesar/' the 
person spoken of, is represented as acting, and therefore "conquered" 
is in the active voice. Again, when we say, 4i Gaul was conquered 
by Caesar," the subject or thing spoken of is Gaul ; it is represented 
as acted upon, and therefore "was conquered" is in the passive 
voice. 

QUESTIONS. 

What belongs to the inflection of verbs ? What is meant by voice t 
How many voices has the transitive verb in English ? What are 
they? How does the active voice represent its subject? How does 
the passive voice represent it? What voice have intransitive verbs ? 
Have they ever a passive form ? Have they ever a passive sense ? 
When intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in the 
passive voice ? 

EXERCISES. 

In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, 
as on the first, in the following manner : Who is the person spoken 
of in this sentence? Ans. — John. What is said of John? Ans. — 
He studies. Does the word studies represent John as acting, or as 
acted upon? Ans. — As acting. In what voice then is "studies?" 



MOODS. 43 

Ans. — Active voice. Change the sentence so as to make "gram- 
mar" the thing spoken of, and express the same meaning. Ans. — 
41 Grammar is studied by John." Analyze this sentence in the same 
way as the other. 

John studies grammar. Cain slew Abel. Noah built 
the ark. The temple was built by Solomon. Columbus 
discovered America. Pride ruins thousands. Most men 
are governed by custom. I have written a letter. 



ILesson 19. — Moods. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing 
the signification of the verb. 

Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indica- 
tive, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and 
Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative mood declares the fact 
expressed by the verb simply, and without 
limitation; as, He loves ; He is loved. 

2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact 
expressed by the verb, but only its possibility ; 
or the liberty, power, icill, or obligation, of the 
subject with respect to it ; as, 

The wind may blow ; We may wall: or ride ; I can siobn ; He 
would not stay ; You should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact 
expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as 
conditional, desirable, or contingent; as, 

"If thy presence go not with us carry us not up hence." — "0 that 
he uvre wise ! " 

This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it. 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, 



44 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Do this ; Remember thy Creator ; Hear, my people ; Go thy 
way for this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses the mean- 
ing of the verb in a general manner, without 
any distinction of person or number, and com- 
monly has to before it; as, To love. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The subjunctive mood differs from the indicative only in the 
second and the third person singular of the present tense. The verb 
" to be" differs also in the past tense. 

2. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second 
person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting, 
&c, the language of address is always used ; thus, " Let him love," 
is equivalent to, M Let thou him love ; " where Let is the proper im- 
perative, and love the infinitive governed by it. [See Lesson 66. 1, 2], 

The Infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, having 
the nominative and the objective case, but not the possessive; and 
hence it is used either as the subject of another verb, or as the object 
after it. [See Lesson 66, Sub-rules 1 and 2]. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is mood ? How many moods are there ? How does the 
Indicative mood express an action or state? — the Potential? — the 
Subjunctive? — the Imperative? — the Infinitive? In what parts does 
the Subjunctive differ from the Indicative? How many persons has 
the Imperative mood? How may the Infinitive mood be considered? 
As a verbal noun, what cases has it ? 

K B. Exercises on this and the following Lesson will be better 
understood after the pupil has gone through Lesson 23. They are 
therefore omitted here. 



[Lesson 20. — Tenses, or Distinctions of Time. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 



TENSES, OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 45 

Time is naturally divided into Present, Past, and Future ; and an 
action may be represented, either as incomplete and continuing, or, 
as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, 
only two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of 
the" verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs ; 
thus, 

p , ( Action continuing ; as, I love, I do love, I am loving. 

resent. | Mellon completed ; as, I have loved. 

-p ( Action continuing ; as, I loved, I did love, I was loving. 

j Action completed ; as, I had loved. 
-r, , ( Action continuing ; as, I shall or will love. 

l b . \ Action completed ; as, I shall have loved. 

The tenses in English are six; namely, the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past- 
perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative mood has all the six tenses; 
they are used as follows: 

1. The Present tense expresses what is 
going on at the present time; as, I love you. 
I am loved. 

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an 
action or event as completed at the present 
time; or in a period of which the present 
forms a part; as, "John has cut his finger." "I 
have sold my horse." "I have done nothing 
this week." 

3. The Past tense expresses what took place 
in past time; as, "God said, let there be light;" 
"The ship sailed when the mail arrived!' 

4. The Past-perfect tense represents an 
action or event as completed at or before a 
certain past time ; as, " I had walked six miles 



46 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

that clay;" "All the judges had taken their 
places before Sir Roger came." 

5. The Future tense expresses what will 
take place in future time; as, "I will see you 
again, and your hearts shall rejoice." 

6. The Future-perfect intimates that an 
action or event will be completed at or before 
a certain time, yet future; as, "I shall have 
got my lesson before ten o'clock to-morrow." 

Note. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Sim- 
ple tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. 

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 

7< The Potential mood has four tenses; the 
Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, and the 
Past-perfect 

The tenses in this mood indicate the time, not of the act expressed 
by the verb, but of the liberty, poioer, will, or obligation, expressed 
by the auxiliary, or sign of the tense ; thus, "I may write," does not 
express the act of writing as present, but only the liberty to write, 
expressed by the auxiliary may. 

Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood is less definite, 
and depends not so much on the tense as on other words with which 
it stands connected. This is the case especially with the Past tense. 
[See An. & Pr. Gr. 428-432.] 

8. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, 
has only the present tense. The verb to he 
has the present and the past. The indicative 
mood is also used as the Subjunctive. Les- 
son 65. 

9. The Imperative mood may always be re- 
garded as present; i. e. the command, &c, is 
present, though the doing of the act com- 
manded is future. 



TENSES, OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 47 

10. The Infinitive mood has two tenses ; the 
Present and the Perfect 

11. Participles have three tenses; the Pre- 
sent, the Past, and the Perfect; as, Loving, 
loved, hewing loved. 

[See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 455]. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

1. The Present tense is used to express, 1st — the simple existence 
of the fact; as, "He speaks." 2d — what is habitual or always true; 
as, " He takes snuff." 3d — In historical narration, it is used for the 
past; as, "Caesar leaves Gaul," for " Caesar left Gaul." 

2. The Present-perfect is used, 1st — To express what has taken 
place at the present time, or in a period of time of which the present 
forms a part; as, "My father has arrived." 2d — To express an act 
or state continued through a period of time reaching to, and includ- 
ing the present; as, "He has [now] studied six months." 3d — To 
express an act long since completed, when the reference is not to 
the act of finishing, but to the thing finished as still existing ; as, 
" Cicero has written orations." 

3. The time indicated by the Past tense is regarded as entirely 
past, however near; as, "I saw him a moment ago." It is also used 
to express* what was customary in past time; as, "She attended 
church regularly." 

4. The Past tenses of the Potential, and the Subjunctive mood, are 
less definite in regard to time, than the same tenses in the Indicative. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are tenses? How is time naturally divided? In each of 
these, how may an action or state be represented ? How many 
tenses are there in the English verb ? How many has the Indicative 
mood ? What are they ? What does the present tense express ? — 
the Present-perfect? — the Past? — Past-perfect ?— the Future? — the 
Future-perfect ? 

How many tenses has the Potential mood? — the Subjunctive? — 
the Imperative ?— the Infinitive ?— the Participles ? In what different 
ways is the Present tense used?— the Present-perfect? — the Past? 



48 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR, 

^Lesson 21. — Participles, 

[Review four preceding Lessons, and answer promptly and correctly 
all the questions.] 

A Participle is a word which, as a verb, ex- 
presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, 
qualifies a noun or substantive ; as, 

There is a boy amusing himself; Devoted to study, he soon became 
learned ; Having finished our task, we may play. 

Verbs have three participles; the Present, 
the Past, and the Perfect ; as, Loving, loved, 
having loved ; — Being loved, loved, having been 
loved. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The Present Participle active ends always in ing, and has an 
active signification ; as, James is building a house. In many verbs, 
however, it has also a passive signification ; as, The house was build- 
ing, when the wall fell. [See An. & Pr. Gr. 456-457]. 

2. The Past Participle has the same form in both voices. In the 
active voice, its signification is active ; as, He has concealed a dagger 
under his cloak ; — In the passive voice, its signification is passive ; 
as, He has a dagger concealed under his cloak. 

3. The Perfect Participle is always compound, and has an active 
signification in the active voice, and a passive signification in the 
passive voice. 

4. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal or participial 
noun, having the nominative and the objective case, but not the pos- 
sessive. In this character, the participle of a transitive verb may 
still retain the government of the verb, or it may be divested of it 
by inserting an article before it, and the preposition of after it. [See 
examples, An. & Pr. Gr. 462]. 

5. Some participles, laying aside the idea of time, and simply qual- 
ifying a noun, become participial adjectives, and as such admit of 
comparison ; as, An amusing — a more amusing — a most amusing 
story. A most devoted friend. 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 49 



QUESTIONS. 

What is a participle? How many participles are there? Has the 
participie in iug ever a passive signification? Give an example. 
How is the perfect participle used? Describe the use of the present 
participle as a verbal noun. How do participles become adjectives? 
What are such adjectives usually called? Do they admit of com- 
parison ? 

[Before proceeding to the next Lesson, review thoroughly from 
the beginning in two or three recitations.] 



Lesson 22. — Number and Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

1. Every tense of the verb, except in the 
Infinitive mood, has two Numbers, the Singu- 
lar and the Plural; and each of these has three 
Persons, except in the Imperative, which has 
only the Second. 

2. The First person asserts of the person 
speaking; its subject is always / in the singu- 
lar, and toe in the plural; as, I write; ice 
write. 

3. The Second person asserts of the person 
spoken to; its subject is always thou in the 
singular, and ye or you in the plural; as, Thou 
writest; ye or you write. 

4. The Third person asserts of the person 
or thing spoken of; its subject is any noun, or 
the pronoun he, she, it, or they, used instead of 
it; as, John reads; he walks; they run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The first, second, and third persons plural, are always like the 
first person singular. 
5 



50 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

2. The second person singular of the present indicative active, 
ends in st or est ; as, thou lovest ; thou readest ; — of the past, gene- 
rally in st ; as, thou lovedst. All the other persons in both numbers 
in this tense are alike. 

3. Yerbs that end in s, sh, ch, z, x, or o, form the third person sin- 
gular of the present indicative active, by adding es, or, in the grave 
style, eth ; as, He teaches, or teacheth. All others add s or th, or 
eth ; as, he loves, or loveth ; — reads, readeth. 

4. Verbs in y with a consonant before it, change y into i before 
the terminations est, es, eth, ed; but not before ing ; as, try, triest, 
tries, trieth, tried, trying. 

5. The Infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, sometimes ex- 
presses that of which a person speaks, and is therefore the subject of 
the verb. When it does so it is always regarded as the third per- 
son, and a pronoun standing instead of it is in the neuter gender ; 
as, To play is pleasant ; it promotes health. [An. and Pr. Gr., 869. 
Also, Lesson 66, Sub-rule 1]. 

QUESTIONS. 

How many numbers has each tense ? What mood has no dis- 
tinction of number or person ? How many persons are in each 
number ? What mood has only the second person ? Of whom does 
the first person assert ? What is its subject in the singular ? — in the 
plural? Of whom does the second person assert? What is its sub- 
ject in the singular? — in the plural? Of whom or what does the 
third person assert? What is its subject? What parts in each 
tense are alike ? How is the second person singular formed in the 
present indicative ? — in the past tense ? When is the third person 
singular of the present indicative formed by adding es, or eth? — 
When by adding s, or th, or eth? How is it formed when the verb 
ends in y after a consonant ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the second person singular of the following verbs, and how 
it is formed. 

2. Tell the third person, and how it is formed. 

3. Prefix thou to each verb, when put in the second person singu- 
lar; as, "thou tellest;" and he to each, when put in the third; as, 
"he- tells." 

Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, hear, 



CONJUGATION" OF VERBS. 51 

taste, touch, handle, write, par, eat, drink, warm, teach, go, 
do. fill, play, stand, sell, buy, study, copy. 

4 In the following words, tell which are in the first person, and 
why; — in the second, and why; — in the third, and why. 

5. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pronoun of the 
same person and number as the verb : as, / love, thou lovest, &c. 

Love, lovest, loves, runs, runnest, sleep, teach, preaches, 
teachest, writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, teaches, 
speaks, read, readest, sews, pay, look, svaiks, jump, hop, 
skip, laughs, sing, cry, criest, study, studies. 



Wesson 23. — Conjugation of Verbs. 

[The pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this Lesson, till he is 
able to tell every part at once and correctly — and to give promptly 
any part of the verb that may be required.] 

1. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several 
moods, tenses, numbers, and jiersons. 

2. In the active voice, most verbs have two 
forms; the Common; as, I read; and the 
Progressive ; as, I am reading. See Lesson 
27, note. 

Besides these, ir the present and the past indicative active, there 
is a third form called the Emphatic ; as, I do read, I did read. The 
other tenses, and also the progressive and the passive form, are ren- 
dered emphatic by placing a greater stress of voice on the first aux- 
iliary ; as, I have read — I am reading — it is read. 

3. In parsing, a verb is conjugated by giv- 
ing its principal parts, as follows : 





Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Active. 


Love, 


Loved, 


Loved. 


Passive. 


Am loved, 


Was loved, 


Been loved, 



52 



INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



The Verb TO BE. 

The intransitive irregular verb To be, is in- 
flected through all its moods and tenses, as 
follows : 







PRINCIPAL PARTS. 


Present^ am. 


Past, was. Past Pc 






INDICATIVE MOOD. 






PRESENT TENSE. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I am. 
Thou art. 
He is. 


Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I have been. 
Thou hast been. 
He has been. 


1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I was. 
Thou wast. 
He was. 


1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I had been. 
Thou hadst been. 
He had been. 


1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. They had been. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 



THE VERB TO BE. 53 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I mav be. I. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can Itave, or must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, coidd, would> should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou migbtst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, woidd have, should have. — Inflect with 

each. 

1. I might have been. 1, We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

present tense ( Subjunctive form). 
Singidar. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. if he be. 3. If they be. 

past tense ( Subjunctive form).* 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou were or wert. 2. If you were. 

3. // he were. 3. If they were. 

* The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative 
with a conjunction prefixed; thus, If I am, If I have been, If I was, 
If I had been, If I shall or will be, If I shall have been. 
5* 



54 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Let the pupil tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the 
following words— parts of the verb to be; thus, "Am," present, in- 
dicative, first person, singular. 

2. Let him parse the same words ; thus, "Am" is a verb, intransi- 
tive, irregular ; am, was, been; in the present, indicative, first person, 
singular. 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, we had been, you have 
been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall 
be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they will 
have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
he must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it " 
could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been, 
wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
have been ; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were. 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
been, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 

3. In the following sentences, parse the words in order; thus, 
"S?iow" is a noun, neuter, the nominative singular, because the sub- 
ject of " is." "Is " is a verb, intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been ; in 
the present, indicative, third person, singular. " White " is an adjec- 
tive, qualifies snow; compared, white, whiter, whitest. 



THE VERB TO LOVE. 55 

Snow is white; he was a good man; we have been 
younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are 
old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ; be 
cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich. 



Lesson 24. — The Verb to love. 

The regular verb to love, in the common 
form, is inflected through all its moods and 
tenses, as follows : 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle, loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

PAST TENSE, f 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thoulovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

* present tense, (Emphatic form.) 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does or doth love. 3. They do love. 

| past tense. (Emphatic form.) 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



56 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, ?nitst. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may love. 1* We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have,* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have.— -Inflect with 

each. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

* Can have is not used in aflirmative sentences. 



THE VERB TO LOYE. 57 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

present tense (Subjunctive form).* 
1. If I love. 1. //'we love. 

. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

. //'he love. 3. If they love. 



9 



present tense {Indicative form.) 

1. //"Hove. 1. |fwe love. 

2. //' thou lovest. 2. //' you love. 

3. if he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love. 

present-perfect tense. 

1. If I have loved. 1. //'we have loved. 

2. if thou hast loved. 2. ir you have loved. 

3. if he has or hath loved. 3. if they have loved. 

past tense. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. '2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

past-perfect tense. 

1. If I had loved. 1. //'we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. //you had loved. 

3. if he had loved. 3. if they had loved. 

future tense. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. //'we shall or will love. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love. 

3. //"he shall or will love. 3. //'they shall or will love. 

future perfect tense. 

1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. //"we shall or will have loved. 

2. //' thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. //'you shall or will have loved. 

3. if he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved. 

* The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st. in the 
subjunctive or elliptical for ?n, used when both contingency and futu- 
rity are implied ; and 2d. the indicative form, used when contin- 
gency only, and not futurity is implied. In parsing, the latter should 
be called the " indicative used subjunctively," being the indicative 
mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction pre- 
fixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 

The emphatic forms of the present are, If / do lore, if thou do 
love, if he do love, etc. ; of the past, If I did love, if thou dkki low, 
etc., as in the indicative: 



58 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, To love. Perfect, to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 

Parsing. — A verb is parsed by stating its 
kind (i. e., whether transitive or intransitive); 
its form, (whether regular or irregular) ; conju- 
gating it, and telling in what tense, mood, voice, 
number and person, it is found; also its subject; 
thus, 

"He loves." Loves is a verb, transitive, regular; love* loved, 
loved; found in the present, indicative, active ; third person, singu- 
lar; and affirms of its subject, he. 

X. B. It is important in parsing to state every thing belonging to 
a word in as few words as possible, and always in the same order, 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? How is a verb conjugated? 
Conjugate the verb love in the active voice. Say the indicative 
present — past — future — the present-perfect — the past-perfect — fu- 
ture-perfect. Say the first person singular, in each tense — the 
second — the third — the first person plural — the second — the third. 
Say the emphatic form, in the present — in the past. What are the. 
signs (or auxiliaries) of the present-perfect ? — the past-perfect ? — the 
future ? — the future-perfect? — the subjunctive present? — present-per- 
fect ? — past?— past-perfect? &c. What is the sign of the infinitive? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, mood, and 

voice of each verb ; thus, " He loves,'" present, indicative, active. 

2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number ; thus, loves* 

third person, singular. 



THE VERB TO LOVE. 59 

3. Go over it again, and join these together; and so tell the tense, 
mood, voice, number, and person ; and always in this order ; as, 
loves, present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love thou, imperative, 
active, second person, singular. 

In the infinitive, omit the person and number, and say thus, To love; 
present, infinitive, active. 

In the participle, name only the tense and voice; thus, loving ; pres- 
ent participle, active. 

N. B. The pronoun is no part of the verb, but helps to show its 
person and number ; and the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken 
separately, but always with the verb ; so that the two words, and 
sometimes three, as in the past-perfect potential, are parsed together 
as one word; thus, have loved, the present-perfect, indicative, active, 
&c. 

N. B. This Exercise should be repeated till the pupil can do it 
correctly, rapidly, and easily, and without missing, either in the num- 
ber or order of the things to be stated. 

He loves, they love, I have loved, you will love, thou 
teachest, they will learn, he has written, I had given, James 
will go, John may come, he might read, they would have 
studied, children play, hoys studied, they did study. 
Write thou, come ye. To love, to sing, to have played, 
reading, sleeping, running, loved, learned, having loved, 
having gone, birds fly, horses galloped, the fire burns, the 
sun did shine, the moon has changed. 

X. B. Pupils may be required to make exercises of this kind for 
themselves. 

EXERCISE II. 

Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and review 
thoroughly Lesson 16, and the exercises on it; then 

1. Tell which words are verbs, and why ; and whether transitive or 

intransitive, and why. 
•2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the pre- 
ceding Exercise. 

2. Go over it again, and parse each verb by putting all these togeth- 

er ; thus, loves, is a verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, 
active, third person, singular. 

He loves us, I will love him. Good boys will study their 
lessons. Children love play. The dog killed my rabbit. 
James has written a letter. Cows eat hay. A fire warms 
the room. Bring some wood. I have studied grammar. 



60 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Girls may write letters. Your sister can sing. He would 
like to hear a song. Give that book to me. I will give 
this book to you. Lend me your pen. Children should 
obey their parents ; they should love God. Remember the 
Sabbath day, to keep it. All men must die. Time waits 
for no man. Do good to all men. John will mend my 
pen ; I will thank him. You would oblige me by assisting 
me to learn this lesson. Tell Henry to shut the door. 

"And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying, 
Blessed are the poor in spirit : for theirs is the kingdom of 
heaven. Blessed are they that mourn : for they shall be 
comforted. Blessed are the meek : for they shall inherit the 
earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after 
righteousness : for they shall be filled." 

EXERCISE III. 

1. The Nominative Case. 

N. B. A verb in the active voice tells what some person or thing 
does. That person or thing then is its subject, and is in the nomina- 
tive case ; thus, in the first sentence of the preceding Exercise, the 
word "loves" tells what " he" does; he, therefore, is its subject, and 
is in the nominative case. 

Point out the verb in each sentence of the preceding Exercise ; tell 
what word is its subject, and why ? What case is the subject in ? 

2. The Objective Case. 

A transitive verb in the active voice tells what its subject does to 
some person or thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb, 
and is in the objective case. Thus, in the above sentence, "He loves 
us," loves is a transitive verb, and tells what its subject, h-e, does to us. 
Us y then, is its object, and is in the objective case. 

The nominative, or subject, is usually before the verb ; the objective 
is usually after it. 

Point out the transitive verbs in the preceding Exercise. Tell what 
word is the object in each sentence, and what case it is in. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Parsing. 
Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order ; — 
the nouns as directed, Lesson 8, p. 18 ; — the articles as directed, 
Lesson 9, p. 21 ;— the adjectives as directed, Lesson 11, p. 25 ; — the 
pronouns as directed, Lesson 12, p. 28; and the verbs as directed in 
this Lesson, p. 58. 



NEGATIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 61 



Lesson So. — Negative Form of the Verb. 

The verb is made to deny by placing the word not after the simple 
form; as, u Thou lovest not;''' and between the auxiliary and the 
verb in the compound form ; as, " I do not love." When two auxilia-^ 
ries are used, not is placed between them; as, I xcoald not have loved. 

In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first, as, Not 
to love ; not loving. 

The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the present 
and the past tense, the compound or emphatic form is more common. 
The following synopsis will show the manner of using the negative. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, &c. 

Past Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 

Fut. Pbrf. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, &c. 
loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, &c. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

loved. &c. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, &e. 

Past Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 

loved. &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, &c. 
The other tenses are the same as in the indicative. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Sing. 2. Love not, or do not thou Plur. 2. Love not, or do not ye 
love. love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perf. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 

Perf. Not having loved. 
6 



62 



INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



Lesson £6. — Interrogative Form of the Verb. 

The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative or 
subject after the simple form ; as, Lovest thou? and between the aux- 
iliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, Do I love? When 
there are two auxiliaries the nominative is placed between them ; as, 
Shall I have loved? 

The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can not have 
the interrogative form. 

The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The 
following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interroga- 
tive form. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Pres. Perf. 
Past. 
Past Perf. 

Future. 



1. Do I love? 
1. Have I loved? 
1. Did I love? 
1. Had I loved? 
1. Shall I love? 



2. Dost thou love? &c. 
2. Hast thou loved? &c. 
2. Didst thou love ? &c. 
2. Hadst thou loved? &c. 
2. Wilt thou love ? &c. 



Put. Perf. 1. Shall I have loved ? 2. Wilt thou have loved ? &c. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present. 1. May I love? 2. 

Pres. Perf. 1. May I have loved ? 2. 
Past. 1. Might Hove? 2. 

Past Perf. 1. Might I have 2. 

loved ? 



Canst thou love ? &c. 
Canst thou have loved ? &c. 
Couldst thou love ? &c. 
Couldst thou have loved ? &c. 



Obs. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative ; as, Do I not love ? 
or, Do not I love ? 



QUESTIONS. 

How is a verb made negative ? Where is the negative placed in 
the simple form ? Where, in the compound form ? Where, when 
there are two auxiliaries ? Where, in the infinitive and participles ? 
Say the indicative present in the negative form throughout; — the 
other tenses. 

How is the verb made interrogative? Where is the nominative 
placed in the simple form ? Where, in the compound form ? Where, 
when there are two auxiliaries? What parts of the verb can not be 
used interrogatively ? Say the indicative present throughout, inter- 
rogatively. Say the other tenses. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. Go 



EXERCISES. 

1. Pat the verb, in the following sentences, into the negative form. 

2. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the interrogative 
form 

3 Distinguish "the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in 
the preceding Exercise, IV. 

I love you. You loved me. James studies grammar. 
Your father has come. He will go soon. The ship foun- 
dered at sea. John would eat apples. Apples will grow 
on this tree. The horse will run a race. The fox had 
catched the goose. Rabbits eat clover. Study overcomes 
most difficulties. JLabor promotes health. Wealth makes 
the man. Poverty scatters friends. The ships sail. The 
sun has set. The moon rose. The stars will shine. 

N. B. Let the pupils make similar exercises for themselves, and 
parse them. 



Lesson 27. — Progressive Form of the Active 
Voice. 

The Progressive form of the verb is inflected 
by prefixing the verb to be, through all its 
moods and tenses, to the present participle; 
thus, 

Present. 1. 1 am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, &c. 

Past. 1 I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, &c. 

Past Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, &c. 

Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, kc. 

Fut. Perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been writing. writing, &c. 

In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 

Note. Verbs which, in the common form imply continuance, do 
not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, u I am loving" (if prop- 
er), would mean nothing more than, "I love" 

EXERCISES. 

1 Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive 
form : 



64 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

He writes, they read, thou teachest, we have learned, he 
had written, they go, you will build, I ran, John has done it, 
we taught, he stands, he stood, they will stand, they may 
read, we can sew, you should study, we might have read. 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : 

We are writing, they were singing, they have been riding, 
we might be walking, I may have been sleeping, they are 
coming, thou art teaching, they have been eating, he has 
been moving, we have been defending, they had been run- 
ning. 

3. Parse the above verbs in the progressive fgrm ; thus, u We are 
writing ;" "are writing" is a verb, transitive, irregular; write, wrote, 
written; [See Lesson 29] in the present, indicative, active, first 
person, plural, progressive form. 



Lesson 38 • — Passive Voice. 

The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
past participle to the auxiliary verb to be, 
through all its moods and tenses; thus; 

Pres., Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past Part, Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved u 3. They were loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 00 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE, 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, shoidd. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, coidd have, would have, should have. — Inflect with 

each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

6* 



66 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense ( Subjunctive form). 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

past tense {Subjunctive form).* 

1. If I were loved. I. If we were loved. 

2. If thou were or wert loved. 2. J/ you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou loved. 2, Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perf To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. 

Perfect, Having been loved. 

EXERCISE I. 

On the Passive Voice. 

1. Tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words 
in the passive voice ; — change them into the active form. 

2. Go over the exercise again, and parse each word in order ; thus, 
" They," is a pronoun of the third person, masculine (or feminine), 
in the nominative plural, the subject of are loved: "are loved," is a 
verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, passive, third person, plu- 
ral, because its subject, " they," is third person, plural. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is 
loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been 
loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall 
be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall 
have been loved ; you will have been loved. 

* The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative 
with a conjunction prefixed; thus, If I am loved, If I have been loved, 
If I was loved, If I had been loved, If I shall or will be loved, If I shall 
have been loved. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. G7 

He can be loved; thou mayst be loved; she must be 
loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they 
should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been 
loved ; it may have been loved; you might have been loved; 
if I be loved ; if thou wert loved ; though we be loved ; 
though they be loved. Be thou loved ; be ye loved ; you 
be loved. To be loved; loved; having been loved; to have 
been loved ; being loved. 

3. Change the preceding, from the passive to the active progres- 
sive form. 

EXERCISE II. 
On the Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, promiscuously. 

1. In the following Exercise, tell which words are articles — which 
are nouns — and why ; — which are adjectives — and why ; — which are 
pronouns — and why ; — which are verbs — and why. 

2. Point out the verbs ; tell whether transitive or intransitive — and 
why ; — active or passive — and why. 

3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper 
or common — and why; — singular or plural — and why; — their gen- 
der — and why. 

He has learned his lesson. I loved him because he was 
good. A good man will forgive those who may have injured 
him. Love your enemies ; do good to them that hate you. 
Remember your Creator in the days of your youth. We 
are commanded to love our neighbor as ourselves. That 
book was printed in Xew York. The winter has been cold, 
but the ground was covered with snow. Columbus discov- 
ered America. America was discovered by Columbus. I 
have been studying grammar. It is never too late to learn 
that which is good and useful. Peter Parley has written 
some pleasing books. Good boys love reading. Study to 
understand what you read. 

4. Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order, 
as directed in preceding Exercises. 

3SL B. — It will now be important to review thoroughly and repeat- 
edly from Lesson 23, particularly Lessons 23, 26, and 28, with the 
Exercises under them. This will require several recitations. And 
while that is going on, the pupil may also go forward with Lesson 
29, conjugating from memory the irregular verbs, in such portions 
daily as the teacher may direct. 



68 



INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



[Lesson S9« — Irregular Verbs. 

1. An Irregular Verb is one that does not 
form both its past tense and past participle by 
adding ed to the present; as, Am, was, been. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Am 


was 


been 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Awake 


awoke R* 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


baken r 


Bear, to bring forth 


bare or bore 


born 


Bear, to carry 


bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent r 


bent r 


Bereave 


bereft 


bereft R 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Bind nn- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build re- 


built r 


built r 


Burn 


burnt R 


burnt r 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught r 


caught r 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave r 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed, clad 


clad r 


Come be- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew r 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 



* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as irregu- 
larly, are marked with an r. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



69 



Present, 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge, 


is R dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 


dug R 


dugR 


Do ynis- wi- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


dreamt r 


dreamt r 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


dwelt R 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be- for- 


gat or got 


gotten, or got 


Gild 


gilt r 


gilt R 


Gird be- en- 


girt r 


girt r 


Give for- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- r 


graved 


graven R 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove r 


hoven R 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold be- with- 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt r 


knelt r 


Knit 


knit r 


knit or knitted 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular; as, The robber 
was hanged, but the gown was hung up. 



70 



INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



Past. 



Know 


knew 


Lade 


laded 


Lay 
Lead mis- 


laid 
led 


Leave 


left 


Lend 


lent 


Let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


Light 
Load 


lighted or lit 
loaded 


Lose 


lost 


Make 


made 


Mean 


meant 


Meet 


met 


Mow- 


mowed 


Pay re- 
Pen, to inclose 


paid 
pent r 


Put 
Quit 
Read 


put 
quit r 
read 


Rend 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


Ring 
Rise a- 


rang or rung 
rose 


Rive 


rived 


Rot 


rotted 


Run 


ran 


Saw 


sawed 


Say 
See 


said 
saw 


Seek 
Seethe 


sought 
sod R 


Sell 


sold 


Send 


sent 


Set be- 


set 


Shake 


shook 


Shape mis- 
Shave 


shaped 
shaved 


Shear 


shore r 


Shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone r 


Shoe 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 



Past Participle. 
known 
laden 
laid 
led 
. left 
lent 
let 

lain or lien 
lighted or lit 
laden r 
lost 
made 
meant 
met 

mown r 
paid 
pent r 
put 
quit r 
read 
rent 
rid 

rode, ridden* 
rung 
risen 
riven r 
rotten r 
run 

sawn r 
said 
seen 
sought 
sodden r 
sold 
sent 
set 

shaken 
shapen r 
shaven r 
shorn 
shed 
shone R 
shod 
shot 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



71 



Present- 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Show* 


showed 


shown r 


Shrink 


shrank or shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang o?* sung 


sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


sunk 


Sit 


Silt 


sat or sittenf 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Slmg 


slang, slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak be- 


spoke or spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Speil 


spelt r 


spelt r 


Spend mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


span, spun 


spun 


Spit be- 


spat, spit 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


Stand with- &c 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride be- 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung *» 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


StrewJ bc- 


strewed 


strewed or 


Strow be- 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat r 


sweat r 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take be- kc. 


took 


taken 



* Shew, shereed, shewn, — pronounced show, kc. 
f Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete. 

X Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and show, as they are 
pronounced. 



72 



INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Teach mis- re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear w»- 


tore or tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve R 


thriven r 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen r 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Wet 


wet r 


wet r 


Whet 


whetR 


whet r 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought R 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung r 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



Obs. The preceding list contains nearly all the simple irregular 
verbs in the English language. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an irregular verb ? Are any verbs both regular and irreg- 
ular ? Give an example. Since there is no list of regular verbs, how 
may we know what verbs are regular? Is "am" regular or irregu- 
lar — and why ? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Name the past tense and past participle of the following verbs; 
Thus, Take y took, taken. [This is called conjugating the verb.] 

2. Make a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with each 
verb, in the present tense — in the perfect-tense — in the past tense — 
in any tense ; thus, We take breakfast early. John took my hat. I 
have taken his coat. 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, 
feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, 
ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, 
speak, stand, tell, win, write. 

3. In the sentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are 
transitive, and which are intransitive — and why. Point out the sub- 
ject in each sentence, that is, the person or thing spoken of, and 



DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 73 

call that the nominative. Tell which nouns or pronouns are in the 
nominative — and why ; — in the objective — and why. 

4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form — in the 
progressive form — in the negative form — in the interrogative form — 
in the negative interrogative form. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. 'in the following Exercise, point out which verbs are regular, 
and which are irregular — and why. 

2. Make short sentences with each verb, as in the preceding Exer- 
cise, and do with each as there directed, in Xos. 2, 3, 4. 

Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, bunt, count, 
reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, teach, wipe, 
am, draw, bruise, water, know, wash, spoil. 

3. Take the sentences containing transitive verbs, and express the 
same idea by the passive form ; thus, suppose the sentence to be, 
"James loves praise ; " passive form, "Praise is loved by James." 

4. Parse the sentences so changed. 



Lesson 30. — Defective and Impersonal Verbs. 

Defective verbs are those in which some of 
the parts are wanting. They are irregular, 
and chiefly auxiliary. These are, — 

Present. Past. Past Part. Present. Past. Past Part. 

Can could 

May might 

Must 



Shall 


should 


Will 


would 


Wis 


wist 


Wit or ) 
Wot \ 


wot 



Ought 

Quoth quoth 

Imperative, — Beware. 

2. Impersonal verbs are those which assert 
the existence of some action or state, but refer 
it to no particular subject. They are preceded 
by the pronoun it, and are always in the third 
person singular- as ; it seems; it becomes, &c. 
i 



74 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

To this head may be referred such expressions as, It hails, it 
snows, it rains, it thunders, it behooveth, it irketh ; and perhaps also, 
me thinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, in which, instead of it, the 
first personal pronoun in the objective case, me, is prefixed to the 
third person singular of the verb. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a defective verb ? Are they regular or irregular ? What 
are they ? What tenses do the most of them have ? What tense 
has must? — ought? Is it proper to say "I had ought to read?" 
Why? What is an impersonal verb ? By what are they preceded ? 
In what person and number are they ? What sort of words are me- 
thinks, meseems, &c. ? 



l*e$son 31. — Adverbs. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 
denote some circumstance respecting it; as, 
Ann speaks distinctly: she is remarkably dili- 
gent, and reads very correctly. 

Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to their 
signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 

I . Quality or Manner simply ; as, well, ill, bravely, prudently, 
softly, with innumerable others, formed from adjectives by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; thus, tame, tamely ; sensible, seoisibly, &c. 

2. Place; as, here, there, where; hither^ thither; hence, &c. 
8. Time ; as, now, then, when ; soon, often, seldom ; ever, &c» 

4. Direction; as, upward, downward, backward, forward, &c„ 

5. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, 7iowise, never. 

6. Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes. 

7. Uncertainty; as, perhaps, per adventure, perchance. 

8. Interrogation ; as, how, lohy, when, tvherefore, &c. 

9. Comparison ; as, more, most ; less, least ; as, so, thus, &c. 
10. Quantity; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 

II. Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. 

12. Conjunctive Adverbs ; as, when, where, how, while, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1. The chief use of adverbs, is to shorten discourse, by expressing 



ADVERBS. 75 

in one word what would otherwise require two or more ; as, here, for 
" in this place ; " nobly, for "in a noble manner,' 1 &c. 

2. Some adverbs admit of comparison like adjectives; as, soon, 
sooner, soo?iest ; nobly, more nobly, most nobly. A few are compared 
irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; badly, or ill, worse, worst. 

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing <z, which signifies at, 
or 071 ; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reckoned 
adverbs ; the corresponding as and so are adverbs also ; thus. It is 
as high as Heaven. 

Circumstances of time, place, manner,. &c, are often expressed by 
two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase ; as, in short, in 
fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not at all, by no means, 
in vain, in order, long ago, bye and bye, to and fro, &c, which, taken 
together, may be parsed as adverbs, or by supplying the ellipsis ; 
thus, in a short space : in a general way, &c. 

6. A Conjunctive Adverb stands for two adjuncts, one of which 
contains a relative pronoun, and the other its antecedent; as, "I 
will see you when you come, i. e., " at the time at which." Tell me 
how it is done,' 1 i. e. the maimer in which. 

Parsing. — An adverb is parsed by stating its 
class, and the word \vhich it modifies; thus, 

"Ann speaks distinctly." Distinctly is an adverb of manner, and 
modifies "speaks." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an adverb ? In the sentence, "Ann speaks distinctly," 
which is the adverb ? Why ? Into how many classes are adverbs 
commonly divided? Name the first three — the second three — the 
next three — the last three. How are adjectives changed into adverbs ? 
What is the chief use of adverbs? Are any adverbs compared like 
adjectives? Give an example. Are any compared irregularly? 
Give an example. What is an adverbial phrase ? Give examples. 
How are such phrases to be parsed ? How are adverbs parsed ? For 
what do conjunctive adverbs stand ? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. In the following list of adverbs, point out the class to which 
each belongs. 



76 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

2. Compare those that admit of comparison. 

3. Make a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain 
one or more of the adverbs in the following list ; and parse the sen- 
tences so made. 

Here, there, softly, boldly, wisely, seldom, upward, once, 
twice, hitherto, yesterday, how, more, little, secondly, enough, 
perhaps, yes, no, truly, not, already, hence, whence, be tier, 
sufficiently, wisely, somewhere. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following sentences, tell what words are articles — what 
words are nouns, and wh# — adjectives, and why — pronouns, and 
why — verbs, and why — whether transitive or intransitive, and why — 
regular or irregular, and why. 

2. Which words are adverbs ? — and why ? What words do they 
modify ? Parse. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went away 
yesterday. They came to-clay. They will perhaps buy 
some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sang 
sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up 
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain 
wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He is a 
very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read 
too little. They talk too much. 



Ijessosi 32» — Prepositions. 

A Preposition is a word which shows the re- 
lation between a noun or a pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence ; as, 

"Before honor is humility." " They speak concerning virtue." 
In these sentences, the preposition, M before" points out the rela- 
tion between " honor " and " humility ; " and " concerning " points 
out the relation between "virtue " and " speak." 



PREPOSITIONS. 



77 



The principal words of this class are contained in the following — 
LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About 


Below 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside ) 
Besides J 


Into 


Till 


After 


Notwithstanding To 


Against 


Between 


Of 


Touching 


Along 


Betwixt 


Off 


Toward ) 
Towards ) 


Amid ) 
Amidst ) 


Beyond 


On 


But 


Out of 


Under 


Among ) 
Amongst ) 


By 


Over 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Until 


Around 


Down 


Pending 


Unto 


At 


During 


Regarding 


Up 


Athwart 


Ere 


Respecting 


Upon 


Bating 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


Behind 


For 


Since 


Without 



OBSERVATIONS OX PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun after it to be 
in the objective case. When any word in the preceding list does not 
govern an objective cese, it becomes an adverb; as, He rides about. 

2. But, in such phrases as cast up, hold out, fall on, the words 
up, out, on, may be considered as a part of the verb, rather than as 
prepositions or adverbs. 

3. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called the 
antecedent term of the relation ; and that which follows it is called the 
subsequent term, or the regimen of the preposition, because governed 
by it in the objective case. 

Parsing. — The preposition is parcel by stat- 
ing what part of speech, and the words between 
w liich it shows the relation ; thus, 

" Before honor is humility." "Before" is a preposition, and 
shows the relation between " honor," and M humility." 

QUESTIONS. 

What i3 a preposition? In what case is the noun or pronoun after 
a preposition ? When an objective does not follow a preposition, 
what part of speech is it to be considered ? What is the related 
word before the preposition called? — the one after it? 



78 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions in the following exercises. 

2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and the 
word to which it is related ; thus, " I went from Albany to New 
York." The preposition fro?n y stands before Albany, and shows its 
relation to the verb, " went? So also, to stands before New York, 
and shows its relation to " we7it." 

I went from London to Bath. The king walked about 
the garden with his son. They dined without me. I fell 
off a ship into the river near (to) the bridge. This box of 
wafers is for you. Charles put it upon the table against 
the inkstand. Turn down the lane through the gate. I 
shall go up the road after him. Run to that tree near the 
house. It stands between the trees. Pal it on the table 
at the side of the house. I found the knife among the 
ashes under the grate. Sit by me. John is at schooL 
They all went except me. 

3. Parse the words in preceding Exercises. 



Lesson 33 — Interjections. 

An Interjection is a word used in exclama- 
tions, to express some emotion of the mind \ 
as, Oh ! what a sight is here ! Well done ! 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! be- 
gone ! hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! 
hush! huzza! hist! hey-dey! lo ! O! Oh! 
strange ! brave ! pshaw ! see ! well-a-day ! 
&c. 

OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 

1. The Interjection is thrown in among the other words in a sen- 
tence, but does not affect their construction. 

2. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be 
prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct address; as, u 



CONJUNCTIONS. 79 

virtue ! How amiable thou art ! " Oh is used detached from the 
word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion of 
pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh ! what a sight is here." 

Parsing. — Interjections are parsed by nam- 
ing them as such, stating why, and the emo- 
tion expressed. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an Interjection ? Name some of them. Does the inter- 
jection affect the construction of the other words in a sentence ? 
How do and Oh differ in meaning ? How, in the manner of writ- 
ing them? How are interjections parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Interjections in the Exercises. 

£. Name all the other parts of speech, and parse them. 

Hah ! I am glad to see you. "Well-a-day ! I did not 
expect this. Alas ! I am ruined. Indeed ! is that true ? 
What ! is it possible ? Lo ! there he is. Hem ! I do not 
think so. O what a benefit education is ! Ah ! you are a 
happy fellow. Hush ! what was that ? Ha, ha, ha ! how 
laughable that is ! Ho ! come this way. Ah ! poor fellow, 
he is to be pitied Hurrah ! we have finished our lesson. 
Come ! now for the next. 



ffiesson 34. — Conjunctions. 

A Conjunction is a word which connects 
words, phrases, or sentences ; as, 

" You and I must study; but he may go and play." "Two awe? 
two make four." Of him, and through him, and to him, are all 
things. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds ; Copulative 
and Disjunctive. 



80 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Copulative. — Also, and, because, both, for, 
if, since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive. — Although, as, as well as, 
but, either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwith- 
standing, or, provided, so, than, though, unless, 
whether, yet, still. 

Obs. The copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be 
taken together; as, "You and I (i. e. both of us) must go." The 
disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be taken separately, 
or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, "You or I (i. e. the one or 
the other, but not both) must go." 

Parsing. — Conjunctions are parsed by stat- 
ing to what class they belong, and the words 
or sentences which they join together; thus, 

" You and I must study." And is a conjunction, copulative, and 
connects You and /. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a conjunction? How many kinds of conjunctions are 
there? What are the copulative? — the disjunctive? How do these 
two classes differ? How are conjunctions parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class 
to which each belongs, and the words which they connect. 

2. Parse all the words in order. 

Henry and Charles read their lessons. I or he will be 
there. I will be with you unless you call. I slept well 
though the dog barked. Read that you may learn. John 
says that he will do it. As he writes, so do I read ; for I 
am fond of reading. Neither the boys nor the girls are 
asleep. I would call if I could, but I can not. Take care 
lest you fall. Two and two make four. He is better than 
I thought he was, though he behaved ill. Since that has 



HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 81 

1 

happened I must go. Do to others as you would that they 
should do to you. 



Lesson 35. — How to distinguish the Parts of 
Speech. 

1. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- 
tions, are so few in number that they ma}- be easily committed to 
memory. 

2. The other four, namely, the noun, adjective, verb, and adverb, 
will be best distinguished by comparing their meaning and use with 
the definitions of these parts of speech in their place ; thus, 

1st. Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a JVbw?a;be- 
cause " A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing." 

2d. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or distin- 
guishing it, is an adjective ; because, "An adjective is a word used 
to qualify a substantive." 

3d. A word that expresses what a person or thing does, or is, or 
what is done to a person or thing, is a verb ; because, " a verb is a 
word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject." 

4th. A word that modifies another by expressing a circumstance of 
time, place, manner, &c. is an Adverb; because " An adverb &c." 
[See definition, Lesson 31,] 

3. The following technical method, though neither very accurate 
nor certain, may assist the young pupil in distinguishing these four 
parts of speech ; but the preceding should always be preferred. 

1st. A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase " I speak 

of" is fiNowi; as, A man; I speak of money. 
2d. A word that makes sense before the word thing, is commonly an 

Adjective ; as, A good thing ; an old thing. 

3d. A Verb makes sense with 7, thou, he, or to before it ; as, I write; 
he writes ; to teach. 

4th. The answer to the question, How ? When? Where? is generally 
an Adverb ; as, How do you do ? Very well. When did you arrive ? 
Yesterday. Where is your book ? It is here. 

OBSERVATION'S. 

L Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part of speech, 
and sometimes as another, according to their meaning and use in the 
place where they are used; thus, 

( Demonstrative Pronoun; as "Give me that book." 
That, < Relative Pronoun ; as, " It is the 6ame that I bought." 
( Conjunction ; as, I am glad that you are come." 



82 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

f Adverb ; as, "It is much better to give than to receive." 
Mucn, -J Adjective ; as, "In. much wisdom is much grief." 

( Noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is required." 

( Conjunction; as, " Since we must part." 
Since, 1 Preposition ; Since that time. n 

( Adverb ; as, "Your friend has gone long since.''' 

( Conjunction; as, "Poor but honest." 
But, i Preposition ; as, "All but one." 

( Adverb ; as, "He has but just enough." 

2. When the same word is sometimes a preposition and sometimes 
a conjunction, let it be remembered that the preposition is followed 
by an objective case; the conjunction is not." 

QUESTIONS. 

How may we most readily distinguish articles, pronouns, preposi- 
tions, conjunctions, and interjections f How do you distinguish the 
noun from other parts of speech? — the adjective V — the verb V — the 
adverb ? 



Lesson SO.— Parsing. • 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into 
its elements, or parts of speech. Words are 
parsed two ways* Etymologically and Syntac- 
tically. 

1. In Etymological parsing the pupil is required to state the part 
of speech to which a word belongs, and to describe it by its arc/dents 
and uses. 

2. In Syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 

word etymologically, to state its relation to other words in the sen- 
tence, and the rules by which these relations are governed. 

N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert in 
etymological parsing. This he can hardly tail to be, if he has at- 
tended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given. The 
reading lessons in the spelling book, or sentences trom any plain 
writer, may now be analyzed and parsed as already directed. To 
assist further in this, observe the following 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

In order to parse a sentence, it is necessary 
to understand it. The sentence being under- 



HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 83 

stood, in parsing it, let the following general 
principles be remembered, viz. 

1. Every Article, Adjective, Adjective pronoun, or Participle, be- 
longs to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood. 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e.., the person or thing spoken of, is 
usually in the nominative, and is said to be the " nominative to the 
verb." 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, when spoken 
of, i3 the subject of a verb, expressed or understood, i. e., it is that 
of which the verb affirms. To this there are a few exceptions. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive mood, 
must have a nominative or subject expressed or understood, i. e., 
something of which it affirms. 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposition, 
governs a noun or pronoun in the objective case ; and every object- 
ive case is governed by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by a 
preposition. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed by a verb or ad- 
jective ; sometimes by a noun ; and sometimes it stands after the 
conjunction, than or as. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is parsing ? How many kinds of parsing are there ? What 
is done in etymological parsing ? — in syntactical parsing ? What is 
necessary before parsing a sentence ? To what does every article, 
adjective, &c, belong? In what case is the subject of a verb? 
When a noun or pronoun in the nominative case is spoken of, what 
must it have ? What must every verb in the indicative, potential, or 
subjunctive mood, have? What case does every transitive verb in 
the active voice, and every preposition, have after it? By what is 
the objective case always governed? When a verbis in the infinitive 
mood, by what is it governed ? 

For the answer to the following questions, go back to the pages 
indicated. 

How is a noun parsed? p. IS. — an article? p. 21. — an adjective? 
p. 25. — a pronoun? pp. 28, 32, 34. — a verb? p. 58. — an adverb? p. 
75. — a preposition ? p. 77. — an interjection? p. 79. — a conjunction ? 
p. 80. Parse all these as directed in the places referred to, and as 
described in the next Lesson. 



84 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



!Lessoia 37. — Model of Etymological Parsing. 

"Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet 

wiser." 

"Give" is a verb, transitive, irregular; give, gave, given; in the im- 
perative, active, second person, singular. Its subject is thou 
understood, and its object, instruction. 

1 'Instruction" is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the object 
of give.* 

"To" is a preposition; it points out the relation between its object, 
man, and give. 

" A" is an article, indefinite, belongs to man. 

"Wise" is an adjective; compared, wise, wiser, wisest: and ex- 
presses a quality of man. 

"Man" is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular; pi. men. 

"And" is a conjunction, and connects the clauses. 

"He" is a pronoun of the third person, masculine, in the nominative 
singular; the subject of will be, and stands for man. 

"Will be" is a verb, intransitive, irregular; am, was, been; in the 
future, indicative, third person, singular, and affirms of its 
subject, he. 

"Yet" is an adverb, modifying wiser. 

"Wiser "is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, wisest; 
and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. 

As a further exercise, the pupil may be re- 
quired to give a reason for every thing affirmed 
in the preceding model ; thus, 

Why do you say that give is a verb ? Why transitive ? Why 
irregular ? Why the imperative ? Why the second person ? Why 
singular ? 

Why do you say that instruction is a noun ? Why neuter ? Why 
singular ? Why the objective ? &c. 



* The person and class of the noun are omitted for reasons stated, 
Illustration, p, 12. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 85 

Lesson 38* — Exercises in Parsing. 

After the same manner as in the preceding 
Lesson, parse and practice on the following 
Exercises. 

MAXIMS FOR YOUNG AND OLD. 

L Early Piety. — Remember now thy Creator in the 
days of thy youth ; while the evil days come not, nor the 
years draw nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no pleasure 
in them. 

Children, obey your parents : honor thy father and 
mother, is the first commandment with promise. 

A wise son heareth a father's instruction, but a scorner 
heareth not rebuke. The eye that mocketh at his father, 
and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley 
shall pluck out, and the young eagles shall eat it. A wise 
son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness 
of his mother. AYhoso loveth instruction loveth knowledge, 
but he that hateth reproof is brutish. 

II. Education. — Train up a child in the way he should 
gc, and when he is old he will not depart from it. 

Quintilian recommends to all parents the timely educa- 
tion of their children ; advising to train them up in learn- 
ing, good manners, and virtuous exercises ; since we com- 
monly retain those things in age which we entertained in 
youth. 

'Tis education forms the common mind; 
Just as the twig is bent, the tree 's inclined. 
An industrious and virtuous education of children is a 
better inheritance for them than a great estate. 

III. Prosperity and Adversity. — If I must make 
choice either of continual prosperity or adversity, I would 
choose the latter ; for in adversity no good man can want 
comfort, whereas, in prosperity, most men want discretion. 
Adversity overcome, is the greatest glory ; and, willingly 

8 



86 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

undergone, the greatest virtue : sufferings are but the trials 
of gallant spirits. 

IV. Anger. — The continuance of anger is hatred ; the 
continuance of hatred becomes malice ; that anger is not 
warrantable which has suffered the sun to go down upon it. 
Let all men avoid rash speaking. One unquiet, perverse 
disposition, distempers the peace and unity of a whole fam- 
ily, or society — as one jarring instrument will spoil a whole 
concert. 

V. Riches. — Riches beget pride; pride, impatience; 
impatience, revenge ; revenge, war ; war, poverty ; pov- 
erty, humility; humility, patience; patience, peace; and 
peace, riches. 

The shortest way to be rich, is not by enlarging our es- 
tates, but by contracting our desires. A great fortune in 
the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune. The more riches 
a fool has, the greater fool he is. 

PERSEVERANCE. 

It is astonishing to see how much can be done by perse- 
verance. Jessie is not so smart as either of her sisters, yet 
it strikes me, she will grow up the most sensible woman of 
the three ; and what do you think is the reason ? Why, 
because she never says she can not do a 'thing, but tries, 
over and over again, till she does it. She is not quick, nor 
is her memory very good ; therefore it is a great trouble to 
her to learn a lesson by heart ; but yet she is generally 
better prepared than the others. Though Louisa can learn 
to repeat a page of history in ten minutes, and Clara went 
twice through the grammar before Jessie got to the twentieth 
page, yet these quick folks often forget as fast as they learn, 
and, like the hare in the fable, that ran a race with the tor- 
toise, they are left behind at last. — Useful Stories. 

WASHINGTON AND HIS MOTHER. 

Young George was about to go to sea as a midshipman ; 
every thing was arranged, the vessel lay opposite his father's 
house, the little boat had come on shore to take him off, and 



SYNTAX. 87 

.is whole heart was bent on going. After his trunk had 
been carried down to the boat, he went to bid his mother 
farewell, and saw the tears bursting from her eyes. How- 
ever, he said nothing to her ; but he saw that his mother 
would be distressed if he went, and perhaps never be happy 
again. He just turned round to the servant, and said, " Go 
and tell them to fetch my trunk back. I will not go away 
to break my mother's heart" His mother was struck with 
his decision, and she said to him, " George, God has prom- 
ised to bless the children that honor their parents, and I 
believe he will bless you." 



PAET THIED.— SYNTAX. 

Lesson 39. — General Principles of Syntax. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connection of 
words in a sentence. 

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense ; as, " Man is mortal." 

A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not mak- 
ing complete sense; as, "In truth." — u To say the least." 

A Substantive Phrase is one which, in the construction of a sen- 
tence, is equivalent to a noun or substantive, being the subject of a 
verb, or the object of a transitive active verb or preposition; as, 
"To do good, is to be happy , " To do good, forget not ; &c. 

An Adjunct is a preposition with its regimen or subsequent term 
as related to its principal or antecedent term ; as, The waters of Jor- 
dan ; They came to Corinth. 

Sentences are of four kinds : Declaratory, Interrogatory, Impera- 
tive, and Exclamatory. 

All sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains onlv a single affirmation; as, "Life is 
short, M 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together ; as, " Life, which is short, should be well im- 
proved." 



88 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Wesson 40. — I. Analysts op Sentences. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of 
two parts — the subject and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is 
affirmed ; as, Snow is white ; Time flies. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject; as, Snow is white : Time Jlies. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun — an infinitive mood, 
or part of a sentence ; as, God is good ; he does good. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute affirmed 
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made. 
Thus, in the sentence, " God is love" — God is the subject, and is love 
is the predicate, in which, love is the attribute, and is, the copula. 

The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word ; as, 
" The fire burns"— u The fire is burning." Hence — 

The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a preposition 
with its case, an adverb, an infinitive, or part of a sentence, connected 
always with the subject by a copulative verb as a copula (An. & Pr. 
Gr. 605) ; or, it may be a verb, which includes in itself both attribute 
and copula, as above ; and is called an attributive verb. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Syntax ? What is a sentence ? — a phrase ? — a substantive 
phrase? — an adjunct? How many kinds of sentences are there? 
What are they ? What is a simple sentence ? — a compound sen- 
tence? What are the parts of a simple sentence? What is the 
subject ? — the predicate ? What is the subject commonly ? Of what 
does the predicate consist? What is the attribute? — the copula? 
Are both ever expressed by one word ? What may the predicate be ? 

EXERCISES. 

In the following, which are sentences? and which are phrases ? and 
why? 

In the sentences, mention the subject — the predicate, and why. 

Snow is white. Ice is cold. Time flies. Life is short. 
In truth. God is good. Home is sweet. To be sure. 
Truth will prevail. Birds fly. The fields are green. 



THE SUBJECT. 80 

Lesson 41. — The Subject. 

I. The subject of a proposition is either 
grammatical, or logical. 

The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, unlim- 
ited by other words ; as, Knowledge is power. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with 
all the words or phrases by which it is limited or denned. Thus; in 
the sentence, " Every man at his best state is vanity," the grammat- 
ical subject is " man ; " the logical, " Every man at his best state.' 1 

When the grammatical subject has no limiting words connected 
with it. then the grammatical and logical subject are the same ; as, 
God is good. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, which is the grammatical, and which 
the logical subject? 

Point out the subject and the predicate in each. 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. All 
men have not faith. The memory of the just is blessed. 
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. The blessing of the 
Lord maketh rich. Wise men lay up knowledge. A man's 
pride shall bring him low. 

II. The subject of a proposition is either 
simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlim- 
ited, or modified as in the preceding exercises. It may be a noun 
or pronoun, an infinitive mood, a participial noun, or a clause of a 
sentence. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, You and I are friends. Time 
and tide wait for no man. Two and three are five. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following, point out the subjects and the predicates. State 
whether simple or compound — limited or unlimited. Distinguish the 
grammatical and logical. 

Time and tide wait for no man. The rich and the poor 
meet together. Two and three are five. Wealth makes 
many friends. James and John are cousins. 

8* 



90 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

liessoia 4S — Modifications of the Subject. 

A grammatical subject, being a noun, may 
be modified, limited, or described in various 
ways; as, 

1. By a noun in apposition; as, "Milton, the poet, was blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, "Aarorts rod budded." 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " The works of Nature are beautiful." 

4. By an adjective word (i. e., an article, adjective, adjective pro- 

noun, or participle) ; as, " A good name is better than riches." 

5. By a relative pronoun and its clause ; as, " He who does no 

good, does harm." 

6. By an infinitive mood; as, " A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 
*]. By a clause of a sentence ; as, " The fact that he was a scholar , 

was manifest." 
8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the grammatical subject — the 
logical — and state how the grammatical subject is modified. 

A wise man foreseeth evil, "Wisdom's ways are pleas- 
antness. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing. He that 
walketh uprightly, walketh surely. Nature does nothing in 
vain. Socrates, the philosopher, died by poison. A desire 
to excel will stimulate to exertion. 



ILessoil 43. — Modification of the Modifying 

Words. 
Modifying or limiting words may themselves 
be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another, may itself be modified in all the 

ways in which a noun, being a grammatical subject, is mod- 
ified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified: — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Blessed are the pure in heart? 

2. By an adverb ; as, " A truly good man hates evil." 

3. By an infinitive; as, "Be swift to hear, slow to speak? 



THE PREDICATE. 91 

3. Again, an adverb may be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct; as, " Agreeably to Nature" 

2. By another adverb; as, "Yours very sincerely." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns 
modified ? — the adjectives ? — the adverbs ? 

The rich man's wealth is his strong city. The very best 
remedy for certain evils is exercise. Truly great men are 
far above worldly pride. Your very kind letter has been 
received. 



Lesson 44. — The Predicate. 

I. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
gra?nmatical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not 
modified by other words. 

The attribute, which together with the copula forms the predicate, 
may be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, a 
preposition with its case, and sometimes an adverb; as, James is a 
scholar. James is diligent. James is learned. James is in health. 
John is not so. 

The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, as the 
fire burns=is burning. 

The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive or a dependent 
clause ; as, u To obey is to enjoy." The order is that we must go. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, together with all the 
words and phrases that modify it : — Thus, Nero was cruel to his sub- 
jects — Grammatical predicate, " was cruel" — Logical, " was cruel to 
his subjects." 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms connected 
with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the same ; as. 
44 Life is short." u Time flies." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and the predicate. In 
each, tell what is the grammatical, and what is the logical predicate. 

The wind blows. The fire burns. Man is mortal. 
Wisdom is the principal thing. He that tilleth his land 



92 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

shall be satisfied with bread. The way of a fool is right in 
his own eyes. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either 
simple or compound. 

A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; as, 
" Truth is great." 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates, 
affirmed of one subject; as, " Truth is great and will prevail " 

EXERCISES. 

In each of the following sentences, name the subject and the predi- 
cate. State whether the predicate is simple or compound. Distin- 
guish the grammatical and logical. 

The fields are green. Caesar came, saw, and conquered. 
John reads and writes well. The cities of the enemy were 
plundered and burned to the ground. The night was dark 
and rainy. A scorner seeketh wisdom and findeth it not. 
Charity suffereth long, and is kind. 



JLesson 45. — Modifications of the Predicate. 

A grammatical predicate may be modified 
or limited in various ways. 

When the attribute in the grammatical predi- 
cate is a noun ; it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute ; as, 

" He is John the Baptist." " He is my friend." " He is my 
father's friend." 

2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute ; as, " Solo- 

mon was a wise king." 

When the grammatical predicate is an at- 
tributive verb, it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the 

verb; as, u We love him" " John reads Homer" 

2. By an adverb; as, " John reads well" 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " They live in London" 



COMPOUND SENTENCES* 93 

4. By an infinitive; a.-, "Boys love to play™ 
6 By a dependent clause; as, "Plato taught that the soul i 
mortal." 

An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects a? 
verb in the predicate. 

A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may be modified 
Id both its subject and predicate as other propositions. 

All other modifying words may themselves be modified as similar 
words are, when modifying the subject. 

Several modifications are sometimes connected with the same 
predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — dis- 
tinguish the grammatical and tiie logical predicate — show in what 
way the grammatical subject is modified in the logical. 

His father and mother are dead : they died a year ago. 
Hannibal crossed the Alps. Livy and Tacitus were Roman 
historians. His intention was to destroy the fleet. Time 
flies rapidly. Sincerity and truth are the basis of every vir- 
tue. I wish that he would come soon. 



Lesson 46* — Compound Sentences. 

A compound sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences, or propositions, con- 
nected together; as, "If time is money, wast- 
ing it must be prodigality.'' 

The propositions which make up a compound 
oentence are called members or clauses. 

Independent and Dependent Clauses. 

The clauses of a compound sentence are either independent, or 
dependent— Sometimes called co-ordinate and subordinate. 

. independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 
A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense onlv in con- 
on with another clause; thus, "We left when the sun set :'' 
4 * We left," is an independent clause ; l% when the sun set," is a de- 
nt one. The-. Hands first. 



94 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state which are simple, and which are 
compound. In the compound, point out the members or clauses — 
analyze them, and state which are independent, and which depend- 
ent: — 

The carriage was brought to the door, and we set out on 
our journey. The sun had set before we got home. When 
we arrived, they greeted us with a cordial welcome. 
Though he slay me, I will trust in him. The subjunctive 
mood is used when both doubt and futurity are implied. 
Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is 
old he will not depart from it. If thine enemy hunger, feed 
liim. 



Lesson 47, — Connection of Clauses. 

Clauses of the same kind, whether independ- 
ent or dependent, are connected by such con- 
junctions as and, or, nor, but, yet, &c; as, 

"The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we are not 
saved." 

In these, the connective is sometimes omitted. 

The members of a compound sentence con- 
taining one or more dependent clauses, are 
usually connected by relatives, conjunctions, 
or adverbs; thus 

Relative. — "That which can not be cured, must be endured." 
Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor, that he may die rich. 11 
Adverb. — " We will go when the cars arrive." 

See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 645, 646. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following compound sentences, state which contain only 
independent clauses ; and which, dependent ones. Point out the de- 
pendent clauses, and also on what leading clauses they depend. 
Name the connecting words. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 95 

Fear God and keep his commandments. Hear instruc- 
tion and be wise, and refuse it not. He that is surety for a 
stranger, shall smart for it. The wicked flee when no man 
pursueth. When I was a child, I spake as a child. Where 
thou goest, I will go. If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise 
for thyself. 

The connecting word i3 sometimes omitted. In the following 
sentences, point out the dependent clause, and state what connective 
is omitted. 

The injuries we do, and those we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. See thou do it not. Your 
father thinks you ought to study more. 



Lesson 48. — Abridged Propositions. 

A compound sentence may sometimes be 
converted into a simple one, by abridging its 
dependent clause. 

A dependent clause is frequently abridged by omitting the con- 
necting word, and changing the verb of the predicate into a partici- 
ple or infinitive : Thus — 

"When the boys have finished their lessons, they will play; 
abridged, u The boys, having finished their lessons, will play." "I 
know that he is faithful ; " abridged, "I know him to be faithful." 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Abridge the following compound sentences into simple ones : 
When our work is finished, we will play. When I had 

visited Europe, I returned to America. It is said, that 
u the love of money is the root of all evil ; " daily observa- 
tion shows that it is so. 

2. Extend the following simple sentences into compound ones : 
Connect the following sentences. Time past can never 

be recalled. The road leading to the castle was blocked 
up. I know it to be genuine. You know him to be your 
friend. We hold these principles to be self-evident. His 
being successful is doubtful. The war being ended, trade 
revived. 



9G INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



liesson 49. — Directions for Analysis. 

State whether the sentence is simple, or compound. 

If simple, name the logical subject, and the logical predicate. 

Name the grammatical subject. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the logical. 

Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is 

modified. 
Name the grammatical predicate. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the logical. 
Show by what modifying words or phrases, if any, each modifying 

word is modified. 
If the sentence is compound, mention the members, or clauses. 
State whether they are independent, or dependent. 
Show how the members are connected. 
Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its subject, 

predicate, &c, as above. 

Models of Analysis. 

1. " God is good." 

This is a simple sentence, because it contains a subject and a predi- 
cate. 
- God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality is 
affirmed. 

Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality" of its sub- 
ject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 

In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the same 
as the logical, because they are not modified by other words. 

Or, more briefly, thus : — 

The logical subject is God. 

The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula and 
good the attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

2. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is The fear of the lord. 
The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 
The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct of the 
Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 97 

The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which, is is the verb or 
copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, 
of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 

3. Two and two make four. 

This is a simple sentence with a compound subject. 

The logical subject is two and two, compound. 

The logical predicate is make four. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is make ; it is modified by its object four. 

4. Truth is great and will prevail. 

This is a simple sentence with a compound predicate. 
The logical subject is truth. 

The logical predicate is is great and will prevail, compound. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The first grammatical predicate is is great ; the second is will prevail 
they are connected by and. 

5. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

This is a simple sentence, imperative. 

The logical subject is thou understood. 

The logical predicate is Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy 
youth. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is Remember. It is modified by now an 
adverb of time, also by its object Creator limited by the possessive 
adjective pronoun thy. It is further modified by the adjuncts in 
the days of thy youth. In the first of these adjuncts, the term days 
is limited by the second adjunct, and shown to be so by the definite 
article the. 

6. Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach 
to any people. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent or co- 
ordinate clauses. 

The first clause, "Righteousness exalteth a nation" is a simple 
independent sentence. Of this 

The logical subject is Righteousness. 

The logical predicate is exalteth a nation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is exalteth. It is modified by its object 
nation^ and this is shown to be used indefinitely by the article a 
prefixed. 

9 



98 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

The second clause, sin is a reproach t<> any people, is also a simple 
independent sentence, and connected with the preceding clause by 
the adversative conjunction but, expressing contrariety or opposi- 
tion. Of this sentence 

The logical subject is sin. 

The logical predicate is is a reproach to any people. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is is reproach of which is is the copula, 
and reproach the attribute, shown to be used indefinitely by the 
article a prefixed. It is modified by the adjunct to an 
In this adjunct, the word people is used in a general or unlimited 
sense as intimated by the indefinite adj. pronoun any prefixed. 

7. Whoso (—"he that" or "the man that") loveth in- 
struction loveth knowledge. 

This is a compound sentence, containing one independent, and one 

dependent clause. 
The independent clause is He loveth knowledge. Of this the loj 

subject is lie or the man, implied in the compound pronoun 
WJiO&O, 

The logical predicate is loveth knowledge. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is loveth. It is modified by its object 
knowledge. 

The dependent clause is that loveth instruction. It is connected with 

the preceding clause by the relative thai restrictive of he its ante- 
cedent. 
The logical subject is the relative that 
The logical predicate is loveth instruction. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is loveth. It is modified by its object in- 
struction. 

8. When all thy mercies, O my God! 
my rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
in wonder, love, and praise. 
This is a compound sentence consisting of one independent clause or 
sentence, and one dependent. It is inverted, the independent 
clause being placed last. It may be resolved and arranged In the 
natural order; thus, 

my soul! at the time at which my rising soul surveys all thy 
mercies, I, transported with the view, am lost in wonder, (in) love, 
and (in) praise. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 99 

The independent clause arranged in natural order is "I, transported 
with the view, am lost in wonder, (in) love, and (in) praise." In 
this simple sentence, 

The logical subject is /> transported with the view. 

The logical predicate is am lost in wonder, love and praise. 

The grammatical subject is / denoting the speaker. It is described 
by the participle transported, and this again is modified by the ad- 
junct by the view. In this adjunct, the term view is defined by the 
dependent clause, and shown to be used definitely by the definite 
article the. 

The grammatical predicate is am lost. It is modified by the adjuncts 
in wonder, {in) love, and (in) praise ; these three adjuncts are con- 
nected by the conjunctive and, understood after the first, and ex- 
pressed before the last. 

The second clause is a dependent simple sentence, arranged thus in 
natural order; " When my rising soul surveys all thy mercies." It 
is connected with its principal by the conjunctive adverb When= 
at the time at which ; the first part u at the time," modifies the prin- 
cipal predicate am lost ; and the second, "at which,'''' modifies the 
predicate of the dependent clause surveys. 

The logical subject of this clause is my rising soul. 

The logical predicate is surveys all thy mercies. 

The grammatical subject is soul. It is described by the participial ad- 
jective rising, and limited or qualified by the possessive my, — my 
rising soul. 

The grammatical predicate is surveys. It is modified by its object 
mercies ; and this again is qualified by the indefinite adjective pro- 
noun all, and the possessive thy. 

The sentence is introduced by the interjectional invocation my 
God! which has no grammatical connection with the sentence. 
See Lesson 71. 



EXERCISES. 
Thus analyze the following sentences : — 

Man is mortal. All men are mortal. The hand of the 
diligent maketh rich. Time is money. The love of money 
is the root of all evil. A friend in need, is a friend indeed. 
He that trusteth in his riches, shall fall. When pride com- 
eth, then cometh shame. 



100 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

.Lesson 45®. — II. Construction of Sentences. 

Words are arranged in sentences, according 
to certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax. 

661. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and its nominative (or 
subject), expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
have a substantive, expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative or subject, has its own verb, expressed or 
understood. 

4. Every finite verb, (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or 
participles) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive de- 
noting the object possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the ac- 
tive voice, or by a preposition ; or denotes circumstances of time, 
value, weight or measure. 

7. The infinitive is governed by a verb, a noun, or an adjective. 
The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the Rules 

of Syntax. 

PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Eules of Syntax may all be referred to 
three heads; viz., Concord, or agreement, Gov- 
ernment, and jPositio?i. 

Concord is the agreement one word has with 
another in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is the power which one word 
has in determining the mood, tense, or case of 
another word. The word governed by another 
word is called its regimen. 

Position means the place which a word oc- 
cupies in relation to other words in a sentence 3 

In the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean- 
ing of a sentence often depends much on the position of the words 
of which it consists. 



SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 101 

Wesson 51 « — Substantives in Apposition. 

Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero, the 
orator. 

Vf ords thus used are said to be in apposition. 

EXPLANATION. — A noun is placed in apposition after another 
noun, to express some attribute, description, or appellation, belong- 
ing to it. Both nouns must be in the same member of the sentence, 
that is, in the subject, or the predicate. This Rule applies to all 
words used substantively, and it is only when the word in apposition 
is a pronoun, that there is any danger of error, because in pronouns 
only, the nominative and objective are different in form. The word 
in apposition is sometimes connected with the preceding by the words 
as, being, and the like. 

EXERCISES* 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition. 
See if they are in the same case. If they are, the sentence is right ; 
if not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. In the following, some 
sentences are right, others wrong. 

First in the hearts of his countrymen is Washington, the 
hero, the statesman, and the patriot. La Fayette, the friend 
of Washington, is no more. Your brother has returned, 
him who went abroad. I bought this paper from a book- 
seller, he who lives opposite ; will you please to give it to 
that boy, he that stands by the door ? Is your sister well, 
her that was lately sick ? Hand that book to John, he who 
reads so well. The premium for the best writer is given 
to Thomas, he who took so much pains to excel. 

2. In this manner, write correct sentences containing nouns, or a 
noun and its pronoun, in apposition. 

* N. B. — Throughout the Exercises-in Syntax — first, correct the 
errors ; secondly, analyze orally the sentences corrected ; thirdly, 
parse any word etymolosrically ; and lastly, parse syntactically the 
word or words to which the rule refers. See Lesson 75. 



102 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Lesson &%> — Adjective and Substantive. 

Rule II — 1. An adjective or participle quali- 
fies the substantive to which it belongs; as, "A 
good man." 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in 
the singular — adjectives denoting more than 
one, qualify nouns in the plural; as, "This 
man."— "These men."— "Six feet." 

EXPLANATION. — This Rule applies to all adjective words, namely, 
adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles. These being indeclin- 
able in English, there is danger of error only in the use of such as 
imply number. 

Obs. 1. Adjectives denoting one, are this, that, one, each, every, 
either, neither ; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third, &c. 

Obs. 2. Adjectives denoting more than one, are these, those, many, 
several ; and the cardinal numerals, two, three, four, &c. 

Obs. 3. Some adjectives implying number, can be joined with either 
singular or plural nouns, according to the sense ; as, some, all, no, 
&c. ; thu£, Some man — Some men. 

Obs. 4. Exception. When a noun following the numeral is used 
in an adjective sense, (Lesson 10, Obs. 1), it has not the plural term- 
ination ; thus, we say, A four inch plank; a three foot wall; a four 
horse team ; a ten acre field, &c. 

Obs. 5. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs; thus, miserable 
poor ; sings elegant, should be, miserably poor ; sings elegantly (686). 

Obs. 6. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to 
the last mentioned, and that, to the first; as, u Virtue &n<i vice are 
op oosite qualities ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it." 

Obs. 7. Comparison. When two objects are compared, the com- 
parative degree is commonly used ; when more than two, the super- 
lative ; as, " He is taller than his father." " John is the tallest amongst 
us." 

Obs. 8. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 
" James is more taller than John," — omit more. "He is the most 



THE ARTICLE. 103 

wisest of the three," — omit most. Tor varieties and exceptions, see 
An. & Pr. Gr. 677-706. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the subo 
stantives which they quality. Tell which denote one, and which 
more than one, and make the substantives singular or plural as the 
adjectives require. 

A well six fathom deep. A pole ten foot Ions;. A field 
twenty rod wide. I have not seen hini this ten days. Those 
sort of people are common. These kind of things are use- 
less. You will find the remark in the second or third pages. 
Each have their own place, and they know it. The second 
and third page were torn. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adjective 
of number, (see Obs, 1, 2, 8,) and a substantive in the number re- 
quired by the adjective. Thus, Every man had a pole six feet long. 



Lesson 53. — Tlie Article. 

Rule HE. — 1. The article a or an is put be- 
fore common nouns in the singular number, 
when used indefinitely; as, "A man" — "An 
apple;" that is, "any man" — "any apple." 

2. The article the is put before common 
nouns, either singular or plural, when used 
definitely ; as, " The sun rises" — " The city of 
New York." 

EXPLANATION. — It is impossible to give a precise Rule for the 
use of the article in every case. The best general rule is, to observe 
what the sense requires. The following usages may be noticed. (For 
others, see An. & Pr. Gr. 707-728). 

Obs. 1. The article is omitted before a noun that is unlimited, or 
that .stands for a whole species; as, Man is mortal; and before the 
names of minerals, metals, arts, &c. Some nouns denoting the spe- 
cies, have the article always prefixed ; as, The dog is a more grate- 



104 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

ful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble animal. Others never 
have it ; thus, Lead is softer than iron. Wood is lighter than stone. 
Obs. 2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no 
article when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a bet- 
ter reader than writer. 

Obs. 3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the 
same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and omit- 
ted before the rest; but when they belong to different subjects, the 
article is prefixed to each; thus, U A red and white rose," indicates 
one rose, partly red and partly white. "A red and a white rose,'' 
means two roses, one red and one white. " Johnson, the bookseller 
and stationer," denotes one person. "Johnson, the bookseller, and 
the stationer," denotes two. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the arti- 
cle. Show why they are wrong, and correct them. 

A great talents without a virtue are dangerous. A man 
is mortal. A time flies. The money is scarce. John is a 
better farmer than a scholar. The black and the white 
spaniel runs fastest. The black and white spaniel run to- 
gether. The time and the tide wait for no man. A red 
and a white rose grows on this bush. The black and white 
man came together. Smith, the tanner and currier, entered 
into partnership. Smith, the tanner and the currier, is a 
man of a great industry. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the article 
«, or an, or the; — others, which shall contain nouns without an 
article. 



]Lesson 54L> — Personal Pronouns. 

Rule IV. — Pronouns agree with the words 
for which they stand, in gender, number, and 
person ; as, All that a man hath, will he give 
for his life. 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule applies only to the personal and 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 105 

possessive pronouns. These stand instead of nouns of all genders, 
numbers, and persons ; and this Rule means, that when any of these 
pronouns is used, it must be of the same gender, number, and per- 
son, with the noun for which it stands. 

PERSONAL PROXOUX— SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken to- 
gether, it becomes plural, and if the icords are of different persons, it 
prefers the first persoji to the second, and the second to the third; as, 
"He and she did their duty." "John and you and / will do our 
duty." 

Rule 2. — WJien a pronoun refers to two or more words in the singu- 
lar, taken separately ; or to one of them exclusively, it must be singu- 
lar ; as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved." 

Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the pro- 
noun must be plural also ; as, "Neither he nor they trouble themselves." 

Obs. 1. — A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, 
expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular ; but 
when the pronoun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should 
be plural; as, "The army proceeded on its march." — "The court 
were divided in their opinions." 

Obs. 2.— The word containing the answer to a question, must be 
in the same case as the word that asks it; as, "Who said that?" 
Ans. "I (said it)." " Whose books are these?" Ans. "John's." 
For other Xotes and Observations, see An. & Pr. Gr. 7 3 1-741. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the personal and possessive 
pronouns, and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun 
if necessary, for one of the same gender, number, and person, with 
its noun. ' 

Give to every man their due. Answer not a fool accord- 
ing to her folly. Take handfuls of ashes and sprinkle it to- 
ward heaven. Rebecca took raiment and put them upon 
Jacob. Thou and he shared it between them. Who is 
there? Me. Who did that? Him. Whom did you 
meet? He. Whose pen is that ? Her or mine's. Virtue 
forces her way through obscurity, and sooner or later it is 
sure to be rewarded. 



106 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



"LessoFl 55. — Relative and Antecedent. 

Eule V. — The relative agrees with its antece- 
dent in number and person; as, "Thou who 
speakest." — "The book which was lost." 

EXPLANATION. — The relative stands instead of the noun or pro- 
noun called its antecedent, and also connects the idea expressed in 
its clause with the antecedent, either for the purpose of further de- 
scribing it, or of limiting and restricting it. [See Lesson 13, Obs. 1], 
Consequently, the relative is always regarded as of the same person 
and number as its antecedent ; and, if the nominative to a verb, the 
verb will be of the same number and person also. For remarks re- 
specting the antecedent, and the use of who and which, see Lesson 13. 

Rule 1. — Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; as, 
" The man who" — " The fox who had never seen a lion." 

Rule 2. — Which is applied to things, and inferior animals; as, 
"The house which;" "The dog which." See Lesson 13, 4. 

Rule 3. — That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 

1. After the superlative degree, the words same, all, and some- 

times no, som,e, and any ; and generally in restrictive clauses ; 
as, "It is the best that can be got." 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, 

" The man and the horse that we saw yesterday." 

3. After the interrogative loho, and sometimes after the personal 

pronouns; as, "Who that knows him will believe it." "I 
that speak in righteousness." 

4. Generally, when the propriety of who or which, is doubtful as, 

" The child that was placed in the midst." 
For other remarks, see An. & Pr. Gr. 743- J 759. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the relative, and the noun or pronoun to which it re- 
fers. Tell the use of the relative and its clause in each sentence. 
Alter the relative, if necessary, as required by its antecedent, accord- 
ing to Sub-Rule 1. If the relative is in the nominative, put its verb 
in the same number and person as the relative or the antecedent. 
Give a reason for each change. 

The friend which I love. The vice whom I hate. 
There is the dog who followed us. They which seek wis- 
dom, find it. All which beauty, all which wealth e'er gave. 
" I who speak unto you, am he." It is the best situation 



NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 107 

which can be got. The man and the horse whom we 
saw. 

2. Write a tew short sentences, each of which shall contain one of 
the following nouns or pronouns limited by a relative and its clause ; 
viz, Man, lumse, dog, tree, field, hat, boot, chair ; I, thou, he, ioe, you, 
they; thus, "There is the man who makes baskets." Parse the sen- 
tences, and tell the number and person of the relative, and why. 



Lesson o6. — Subject Nominative. 

Rule VI. — The subject of a finite verb is put 
in the nominative; as, "I am," — "Thou art." — 
"He is."— *Thejj are."— ■" Time flies." 

Explanations. — A finite verb is a verb limited by person and num- 
ber, i. e., a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or impera- 
tive mood. 

The subject of a finite verb may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive 
mooiJ, a participle, used as a noun, or a clause of a sentence. All 
these, when the subject of a verb, may be regarded as the nomina- 
tive. See An. & Pr. Gr. 761-767. 

EXERCISES. 

In each sentence, point out the verb and its subject. If the sub- 
ject is not iu the right case, change it. 

Him and me are of the same age. Suppose you and me 
go. Them are excellent. It is probable that her and me 
will return. Robert is taller than me, but I am as strong 
as him. I am older than him ; but he is taller than me. 



Lesson 57. — Nominative Absolute. 

Rule VII. — A substantive zohose case depends 
on no other word, is 2nd in the nominative ab- 
solute. 

SPECIAL RULES. 
Rtt.k 1. — A substantive with a participle, xohose case depends on no 
in the nominative absolute; as, "He being gone, 
only two remain. v 



108 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Rule 2. — A person or thing addressed, without a verb or governing 
ivord, is put in the nominative ; as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly.* 1 
" Plato, thou reasonest well." 

Rule 3. — A substantive unconnected in mere exclamation, is put in 
the nominative ; as, " the times ! — the manners /" 

Rule 4. — A substantive used by pleonasm, before an affirmation, is 
put in the nominative ; as, " Your fathers, where are they ?" 

Under these Rules, a mistake can be made Only in the ease of pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the word in the case absolute or independent: if wrong, 
put it in the right case, and state why it should be in the nominative. 

Me being absent, the business was neglected. Thee be- 
ing present, he would not tell what he knew. Oh ! happy 
us, surrounded with so many blessings. Thee too ! Brutus, 
my son ! cried Caesar overcome. 



I^essofil 58* — Verb and its Nominative. 

Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its nomina- 
tive in number and person ; as, "I read" "Thou 
readest" "He reads" &c. 

Explanation. — This Rule means, that a verb must always be in the 
same number and person with its subject or nominative. This Rule 
and the Special Rules under it apply, also, when the subject is an in- 
finitive mood, or clause of a sentence. See under Rule VI. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs — which 
the nominatives — whether the verb and its nominative agree — and if 
not, make them agree by putting the verb in the person and num- 
ber of its nominative. 

You was there. They was absent. Your brothers has 
been abroad. Has your sisters come home? Was you 
present ? The letters has come. Fair words costs nothing. 
There is no roses without thorns. 

2. Take the verb to write, and make it agree with / — with thou — 
with he — with they — in all the tenses of the indicative mood. Take 
any other verb, and do the same. 



PREDICATE STTBSTAXTIYE. 109 

Lesson 59, — Verb audits Subject. 

SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE VIII. 

Rule 1. — A singular noun ustd in a plural sense, has a verb in the 
plural ; as, " Ten sail are in sight." 

Rule 2. — Two or more substantives singular, taken together, have 
a verb in the plural ; as, " James and John are here." 

Exc. — But when substantives connected by and, denote one per- 
son or thing, the verb is singular; as, "Why is dust and ashes proud?" 

Rule 3. — Two or more substantives singular, taken separately, or 
one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the singular ; as, 
u James or John attends.'''' 

Rule 4. — ~[Mien substantives taken together, are of different persons, 
the verb agrees with the one next to it ; as, "James or I am in the 
wrong ? " Better, " James is in the wrong, or I am." 

Obs. So also when the substantives are of different numbers, in 
which case the plural number is usually placed last. 

Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun expressing many, considered as one 
whole, has a verb in the singular ; as, " The company teas large." 

2. But when a collective noun expresses many, considered as indi- 
viduals, the verb must be plural ; as, "My people do not consider. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following Exercises, put the verb in the number required 
by the Rule, and give the Rule for the correction. 

(1) Forty head of cattle was grazing in the meadow. 
Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for one dollar. (2) Life 
and death is in the power of the tongue. Out of the same 
mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. (3) Either the 
boy or the girl were present. (4) I or thou am to blame. 
(5) The people was very numerous. 



Lesson 60* — The predicate Substantive. 

Rule IX. — The predicate substantive after a 
verb , is put in the same case as the subject be- 
fore it; as, "It is I" — "He shall be called 
John." — "I took it to be Mm! 9 

10 



110 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

EXPLANATION. — Verbs having the same case after as before 
them, are chiefly those which^signify to be, or to become ; passive verbs 
of naming, making, choosirig, and the like ; as, " John became a scho- 
lar;' 11 "JJavidw&s made king? The nominative before the finite 
verb is the subject, the one after it is the predicate, and the verb is 
the copida. Hence they all form a simple sentence ; and though the 
nouns denote the same person or thing, and are in the same case, 
they are not in apposition as in Rule I ; but the noun after a verb is 
predicated of the substantive before it, or which is its subject. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following Exercises, in each sentence, point out the verb to 
which the Rule applies, and the noun or pronoun before and after it. 
Tell the case of the one before, and why. Put the one after the 
verb in the same case as the one before it, give the Rule for the 
change, and show how it applies. Tell the subject and predicate in 
each sentence. 

It is me. It could not have been them. I am certain it 
was not me. That is the man who I thought it to be. Is 
that thee ? Whom did they say it was ? I understood it 
to have been he. Was it me that said so ? It could not 
have been me ; but it might have been him, or her, or both. 

2. Write similar correct sentences, in each of which shall be one 
of the following verbs, with the same case after it as before it, viz., 
is, are, became, was made, shall be chosen, to be, to be called, to be 
appointed.. Apply the Rule as above. 



Wesson 61. — Objective after a Transitive Verb. 

Rule X. — A transitive verb in the active 
voice, governs the objective case ; as, " We love 
/^ m ." — "Whom did they send?" 

EXPLANATION. — The transitive verb in the active voice, always 
tells what its subject or nominative does to some other person or 
thing, called its object. The rule means, that this object must always 
be put in the objective case. This rule is liable to be violated only 
when the object is a pronoun, because in all other words, the nomi- 
native and the objective case are alike. 

Nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case, are usually 
placed after the verb — relative and interrogative pronouns, usually 
before it. 



OBJECTIVE AFTER A TRANSITIVE VERB. Ill 

The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or a part of a sen- 
tence, may be the object of a transitive active verb; as, "Boys love 
to play." — M He practised reading aloud." — " I know ivhat he will do." 

EXERCISES. 

> 1. In the following Exercises, point out the transitive verb — its 
subject — its object, — put that object in the proper case — tell what 
that case is, and why. 

He loves her and I. Did they hurt ye ? We know he 
and they. He and they we know. The friend who I love. 
Take care who you admit. I will not give ye up. He 
who you ignorantly worship, declare I unto you. 

2. Write a number of sentences, each of which shall contain an 
active transitive verb ; such as, do, have, touch, hurt, love, &c, fol- 
lowed by a personal pronoun in the proper case. Parse them, and 
give the Rule. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an objective case ; 
as, M Repenting him of his design " — omit him. 

Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense (Lesson 16, Obs. 
3), govern the objective case ; as^ " He runs a race." 

Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice, except 
when used transitively (Lesson 18, 5); as, u My race is run." 

Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a preposition after it; 
as, "I will not allow of it ; " — omit of. 

Rule 5. — Verbs signifying to name, appoint, constitute, and the 
like, generally govern two objectives, viz. : the direct, denoting the 
person or thing acted upon; and the indirect, denoting the result of 
the act expressed; as, "They named him John." 

EXERCISES UNDER THE SPECIAL RULES. 

Show how the Rule is violated in each of the following sentences, 
and correct the error. 

(1) Robert plays himself with his lessons. He lies him 
down on the grass. (2) They expatiated themselves largely. 
Planters grow cotton. Sit thee down. (3) I am resolved 
to go. Is your father returned ? He is almost perished 
with cold. (4) They do not want for any thing. His ser- 
vants ye are.to whom ye obey. False accusation can not dim- 
inish from his real merit. (5) He w^as chosen for a Senator. 



112 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Wesson 62. — Objective after a Preposition. 

Rule XL — A preposition governs the objec- 
tive case; as, "To whom much is given, of him 
much shall be required." 

EXPLANATION. — This Rule means, that the noun or pronoun 
after a preposition, must be put in the objective case. This rule can 
be violated only in the use of pronouns. 

Obs. 1. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposi- 
tion at some distance after them. But this should generally be 
avoided; thus, " This is he whom I gave it to" — better — "to whom I 
gave it." 

Obs. 2. The preposition is sometimes omitted. It is then said 
to be understood ; thus, " Give (to) me that book." Here, " me " is 
governed by " to" understood. 

SPECIAL RULE. 

Rule. — Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure are 
commonly put in the objective case without a governing word; as, " He 
was absent six months last year." — "It cost a shilling." — " It is not 
worth a cent." — "It weighs a pound." — "The wall is six feet high, 
and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, &c. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions and the word governed by each. 
Put that word in the proper case, if not in it already. Give the Rule. 

This belongs to my father and I. Who did you get it 
from ? Who shall we send it to ? Divide it between ye, 
or give it to him and I. This is a small matter between you 
and I. Who did you give it to? Who do you work for? 

2. In this way, write a number of short sentences, each of which 
shall contain a preposition (see the list, p. 11), followed by a per- 
sonal or relative pronoun in the proper case. Parse the sentences, 
and give the Rule for the case after the preposition. 

Obs. 3. When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of 
places, the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : 

1. To— is used after words denoting motion toward; as, "He 
went to Spain ; but, in this case, it is omitted before home, as, 
" He went home." 



PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN" WORDS- 113 

2. At — is used before names of houses, villages, towns, and foreign 

cities; as, u He resides at the Mansion house — at Geneva — 
at Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities; as, 

" He lives in England — in London." But before these, at is 

used after the verbs touch, arrive, land ; and sometimes after 

the verb to be. 
-i. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the 

Xo., and in (generally understood), before the street. 
This Observation contains four special rules, numbered as above. 

EXERCISES. 

Obs. 3. — 1. In the following sentences, change the preposition 
used, for that which usage requires, and give the special Rule. 

I have been to home all day. Have you been to Boston ? 
They live in Union Village ; formerly they lived at New 
York. He has been at England, and has just returned to 
home. TTe touched in France on our way to home. He 
lives to Washington, at B. Street, but resided formerly in 
Xo. 50 Broadway, New York. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the name of 
some city, village, county or state, preceded by a verb or word de- 
noting motion toward, or by the verb be, live, dwell, kc, and the 
appropriate preposition. 



Lesson 63. — Prepositions after certain words. 

Rule XII. — Certain words and phrases 
should be followed by appropriate preposi- 
tions: Thus — 

nae</. Change /or,— -to— into. 

Acquit of. Compare with, in respect of quali- 

Adapted to. ty,— to for the sake of illustra- 

r inr^ire of a person, for tion. 

what we wish to Bee, — after Confide in. 

what we wish to hear of. Conformable, consonant to, with. 

Believe m, sometimes on. Conversant with men, — in things. 

Betray to a person,— into a thing. Copy from life, nature,— after a 

Call on a person, — at a place. parent. 
10* 



114 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Dependent upon. Made of. 

Die of disease, — by an instrument Marry to. 

or violence,— -for another. Need of. 

Differ from. Observation of. 

Difficulty in. Prejudice against. 

Diminish from, — diminution of. Prevail (to persuade) with, on, 
Disappointed in what we have, — upon, — (to overcome), over, 

of what we expect. against. 

Discourage from. Profit by. 

Discouragement to. Protect (others)yrom, — (ourselves) 

Engaged in a work, — -for a time. against. 
Equal to, ivith. Provide with or for. 

Exception from, — sometimes to. Reduce (to subdue) under, — in 
Expert at (before a noun), — in, other cases, to; as, to powder. 

(before an active partciple). Regard for, — in regard to. 
Familiar to, with. A thing is fa- Sick of. 

miliar to us; we are familiar Swerve from. 

with it. Taste (meaning capacity or incli- 

Free from. nation) for, — (meaning actual 

Glad of something gained by our- enjoyment), of. 

selves, — at something that be- Tax with, (e. g., a crime),— /or the 

falls another. state. 

Independent of. Value upon, or on. 

Indulge with what is not habit- Worthy of, — sometimes the of is 

ual, — in what is habitual. understood. 

Insist upon. 

EXPANATION. — As words connected by prepositions, are differ- 
ently related, care must be taken to employ the preposition which 
best expresses the relation intended. The sense and the practice of 
correct writers, will here be our best guide. The above are only a 
few examples out of many. 

Obs. — The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, usu- 
ally follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa; as, Confide 
in, — confidence in, — confident in. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the preposition where necessary in each of the following 
sentences, for that required by the Rule. 

He was accused with robbery, and acquitted from the 
charge. I have been calling upon an old friend. Call in 
the post-office. I differ with you in that matter. John 
died by consumption, Henry died of the sword, and Robert 
is sick with the jaundice. Try to profit from experience. 
You have a taste of poetiy. Conversant in men and things. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE, 115 

Compare this piece to that, and see which is the best. I 
could never bear the taste for tobacco. This is an exception 
against the general rule. 

2. Write short sentence?, each of which shall contain one or more 
of the words in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate 
preposition. 



Lesson 64, — The Possessive Case. 

Rule XIII. — A Substantive that limits the 
signification of another, must be put in the 
possessive; as, u Virtue's reward." — "John's 
books." — " The sun's rays." 

EXPLANATION. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive, always 
limits the noun that governs it: Thus, "Virtue's reward;" the lat- 
ter word does not mean reward in general, or any indefinite reward, 
but a particular reward, viz. : Virtue's. This Rule applies to the re- 
lative pronoun, and to the possessive case of the personal pronoun, 
when the noun denoting the thing possessed is understood; as, 
"That book is mine.'" When expressed, the possessor is denoted by 
the possessive adjective pronoun ; as, " That is my book." 

Obs. 1. — When several nouns come together in the possessive 
case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is 
annexed to the last, and understood to the rest; as, "Jane and 
Lucy's books," i. e., books the common property of Jane and Lucy. 
But if common possession is not implied, or if several words inter- 
vene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, 
"Jane's and Lucy's books," i. e., books, some of which are Jane's 
and others, Lucy's. 

Obs. 2. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than 
one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, 
"Julius Caesar' Commentaries" — "The Bishop of London's 
Charge." 

Obs. 3. The noun limited by the possessive is frequently under- 
stood; as, "He stays at his father's" (house). 

Obs. 4. The preposition o/, with the objective, is frequently equi- 
valent to the possessive, but not always. In the use of it, both harsh- 
ness and ambiguity should be avoided. 



116 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



'For several of the minutiae belonging to this Rule, fiee An. & 
Pr. Gr. 639-850. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the noun or pronoun 
which limits, and the noun whose signification is limited by it; and 
if understood, supply it. Put the limiting word in the possessive 
case. When several words coming together should be in the posses- 
sive, or when the name is complex, add the sign of the possessive fs) 
to the proper term. 

The boys book. The girls bonnet. The Ladys book, a 
birds nest, a bear skin. A mothers tenderness, and a fa- 
thers care, are natures gifts for mans advantage. A horse 
tooth. James and Thomas feet are cold. Williams and 
Marys reign. Sheldon & Company's bookstore is in 
New York. James loss is Thomas gain. The Farmers 
Guide. The Scholars Companion. The Court's session is 
put off. The meeting's president was appointed. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain two nouns, 
one limiting the other. Put the limiting word in the proper case. 



!Le§soi* 65. — Subjunctive Mood. 

Rule XIV. — 1. The subjunctive mood is used 
in dependent clauses, when both contingency or 
doubt, and futurity are expressed ; as, "If he 
continue to study, he will improve." 

2. When contingency or doubt only, and not 
futurity, is implied, the indicative is used ; as, 
"If he has money, he keeps it." 

EXPLANATION".— Doubt and futurity are both implied when the 
auxiliary shall or should, referring to future time, can be inserted be- 
fore the verb without changing the meaning . thus, " Though he fall," 
and " Though he should fall," mean the same thing. It is only in the 
present tense and third person singular, that there is danger of error 
under this Rule, except in the verb to be. 

REMARK.— Many of the best writers, and some distinguished 
grammarians, often use the subjunctive present, when mere doubt 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 117 

or contingency is expressed, and not futurity. A contrary practice 
of using the indicative where both doubt and futurity are implied, 
now begins to prevail; thus, "If he continues to study, he will im- 
prove.'" But the weight of good authority still, is evidently in favor 
of the preceding Rules. A general adherence to them would have 
this advantage, that the mood used would be a certain guide to the 
sense intended. 

Sub-Rule. — Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the sub- 
junctive mood ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty," 
" Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." 

Obs. — The subjunctive mood, in the past tense, expresses a sup- 
position with respect to something present, but implies a denial of 
the thing supposed ; as, " If I were a nightingale, I would sing ; v 
implying, "I am not." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state whether the verb following "if" 
or " though" should be in the subjunctive or indicative mood, and 
why ; and make the necessary correction. 

If there be a rule, it should be observed. Though he 
be rich, he is not happy. If the mail arrives to-morrow, 
we shall have letters. If he studies diligently when he 
goes to school, he will improve. If he is discreet when he 
goes abroad, he will gain friends. If he have money, he 
must have earned it 



Lesson 66. — Infinitive Mood. 

Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed 
by verbs, nouns, or adjectives; as, "I desire to 
learn." — "A desire to learn." — "Anxious to 
learn." 

special rules. 

Rule 1. — One verb being the subject of another, is put in the infin- 
itive ; as, "To study is profitable." 

Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its object or complement in 
the infinitive ; as, "Boys love to play.' 1 '' 



118 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or object of a verb, sometimes 
has a subject of its own in the objective case ; as, "For us to do so, 
would be improper." — " I know him to be prudent." 

Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate nominative after any 
verb as a copula; as, "You are to blarney 

Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the verbs 
bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let, in the active voice, 
nor after let in the passive; as, U I saw him do it ;" not M to do it." 

Rule 6. — Tlie infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or de- 
sign of the preceding act ; as, "Some who came to scoff, remained to 
pray: 1 

Rule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so — as, 
too, or than; as, "Be so good as to read this." — "Too old to learn." 
— " Wiser them to undertake it." 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, tell which verb is in the infinitive 
mood, and what governs it. State whether it is the subject or object 
of the verb. Insert or omit to, the sign of the infinitive, and give a 
reason according to the Rule. 

Strive learn. Cease do evil. Learn do well. He 
needs not to write. I would make you to take care. He 
dares not to do a wicked action ; nor will he dare do it. I 
heard him to say so. He was heard say so. Let James 
to do this. Bid him to speak to me. Did you see him to 
do that ? No, but I heard him to do it. Did you hear the 
bell to ring ? Make him to go. He was made go. 

2. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one verb in 
the infinitive mood, as the subject of another verb— as the object- 
to express the end or design — with to properly omitted — with a sub- 
ject of its own in the objective case. 



"Lesson G7* — Construction of Participles. 

Rule XVI. — Participles have the construc- 
tion Of NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and VERBS. 

Rem. — To participles used in these ways, the Rules of Syntax for 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs, may generally be applied. (See An. & 
Pr. Gr. 891-90*7). 



CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 119 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — Wlien the present or perfect participle is used as a noun, 
a noun before it is put in the possessive case; as, "Much depends on 
the pupiVs composing frequently." 

EXPLANATION. — The present participle is used as a verbal noun, 
whenever it is the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive 
verb'or preposition. Under this rule, the verbal noun may be mod- 
ified in all respects as the verb. 

Obs. 1. — A pronoun before the verbal noun must be the possessive 
pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on your 
composing frequently," (not yours). 

Rule 2. — Wlien the present participle used as a noun, has an arti- 
cle or adjective before it, the preposition of follows ; as, "By the 
observing of these rules." — "A complete forsaking of the truth/' 

EXPLANATION.— When used in this way, the participle is re- 
garded as a noun simply, and has not the government or modifica- 
tions of the verb. 

Obs. 2. — The sense will often be the same, if both the article and 
the preposition be omitted ; but the one should not be omitted with- 
out the omission of the other ; thus, " By observing these rules." In 
some cases, however, these two modes express very different ideas, 
and therefore attention to the sense is necessary, as directed in the 
following rule. 

Rule 3. — When the verbal noun expresses something of which the 
noun following denotes the doer, it should have the article and the 
preposition; as, "It was told in tlie hearing of the witness." — 
But when it expresses something of which the noun following does not 
denote the doer, but the object, both should be omitted; as, " The court 
spent much time in hearing the witness." 

Obs. 3. — Of can never be used after the verbal noun when a pre- 
position follows it; thus, "By attending to these rules," can not be 
changed into, "By the attending of to these rules." 

Rule 4. — Tlie past participle, and not the past tense, should be used 
after the auxiliaries have and be; as, " I have written" (not wrote) 
— "The letter is vrritten" (not wrote). 

Rem. — So also, the past participle should not be used for the past 
tense ; as, "He ran ;" not "He run." "I saw ;" not "I seen." 



120 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

EXPLANATION".— This Rule can be violated only when the past 
tense and past participle differ in spelling. 

Obs. 4. — The participle in ing is sometimes used in a passive sense 
after the verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an action ; 
as, tk The house is building ;" not is being builU 

EXERCISES. 

(RuleI) — In the following Exercise, tell which is the verbal 
noun, and how you know it to be used as such. If a noun stands 
before it, put that noun in the proper case, and give the Rule. 

My brother being sick, is the cause of his absence. A 
man making a fortune, depends partly on him pursuing a 
proper course. John attempting too much, was the cause 
of his failure. Hers going away was not observed. 

(Rule 2). — In the following Exercise, point out the participial 
noun, and tell how you know it to be so used. See what words are 
before and after it, and if not right, according to the rule, make 
them so, and give the rule for the change. 

Learning of any thing well, requires application. The 
doing our duty is commendable. By reading of good books 
the mind is improved. Of the making many books there is 
no end. By exercising of our faculties they are improved. 
The giving to every man his own is a sacred duty. 

(Rule 3).— Consider whether the noun following the present part- 
iciple denotes the doer, or the object of the act expressed by it, and 
correct the sentence accordingly. 

At hearing the ear, they shall obey. Because of pro- 
voking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. 
The greatest pain is felt in the cutting of the skin. 

(Rule 4). 1. — In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands 
after the auxiliary have, or be, change it into the past participle, and 
give the rule for the change. 

He should have wrote. Have you spoke to the master ? 
I am almost froze. She has just began to read. James 
has broke his arm. You should have drove more slowly. 
He has drank too much, and should be took home. He 
might have rode if he had chose. 

2. Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change. 

I seen him an hour ago. I done what you told me. 



THE ORDER OF TIME. 121 

James run a mile in ten minutes, and had not began to be 
tired. The school begun yesterday. He ought to have 
went, or at least to have wrote. That is wrong, you had 
not ought to done it. 

3. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one of the fol- 
lowing verbs, in the present-perfect or past-perfect indicative active, 
viz., begin, run, write, freeze, eat, drink. Parse the sentences, and 
apply the Rule. 

4. Write short sentences, with the following verbs in the passive 
voice ; viz., write, begin, shake, sink, speak, give. Parse them, and 
apply the Rule. 



Lesson 68. — The Order of Time. 

Kule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and icords 
that in point of time relate to each other, the 
order of time must be observed; as ; "I have 
known him these many years" — not "I know 
him these many years." 

EXPLANATION". — This Rule is general, and here also the sense is 
the best guide. The following principles may be noticed in this 
place : 

1. That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense. 

2. That which is past, but viewed as continued in the present, is 
expressed in the present-perfect tense. 

3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, can be asso- 
ciated in a sentence with other verbs in the present only ; those with 
might, could, toould, should, with verbs in the past. 

4. The present infinitive expresses what is cotemporary with, or 
subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the perfect infinitive 
expresses what is antecedent to that time. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the verb which is wrong 
in respect of tense. Put it in the proper tense, and tell why it is 
changed. 

It was said that fever always produced thirst ; that heat 
always expanded metals; and that truth was immutable. 
He is now absent a week. I have been abroad last year. 
11 



122 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

If he would lend me that book, I will be obliged to him. 
He can do it if he would. I intended to have written ; but 
I still hoped he would have come. Rome is said to be 
built seven hundred }^ears before the Christian era. Nero 
is said to persecute the Christians. He has been gone long 
before I knew it. 

2. Write short sentences, and express, in each, something which 
you hoped, feared, desired, intended, to do yesterday, before yester- 
day; — which you hope, fear, &c, to do to-day, to-morrow. Also 
what some one did yesterday, — before yesterday, — always does, — 
does now, — has just now done, — will do to-morrow, — before to-mor- 
row night. 



Wesson 69. — Construction of Adverbs. 

Eule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs; as, " John speaks dis- 
tinctly; he is remarkably diligent, and reads 
very correctly." 

special rules. 

Rule 1. — Adverbs shoidd not be used as adjectives, nor adjectives as 
adverbs; as, " The preceding (not the above) extract.' 7 

Rule 2. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, and should 
not be used unless affirmation is intended; as, " I can not drink any 
(not no) more;" or, " I can drink no more." 

Rule 3. — Adverbs are for the most part placed before adjectives, 
after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the 
compound form ; as, "He is very attentive, behaves well, and is much 
esteemed." 

EXPLANATION. — This is to be considered only as a general Rule, 
to which there are many exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position 
of the adverb can be given, which is not liable to exceptions. The 
best direction for the use of this Rule, is to place the adverb where 
the sense requires, having due regard to the harmony of the sen- 
tence. This Rule applies to adjuncts, or adverbial phrases, as well 
as to adverbs. 

Obs. i, — WItere should not be used for in which, except when the 



THE OKDEU OF TIME. 123 

reference is to place ; as, " The situation in which (not where) I left 
him \ n because " situation" does not here refer to place. 

Obs. 2. — So is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, or a 
whole sentence ; as, " They are rich; we are not so." — " He is a good 
scholar, and I told you so." 

Obs. 3. — Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few 
others, are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, " Not only the men, 
but the women also were present." 

Obs. 4. — A negative is often made by the syllables dis, in, im, un, 
&c, prefixed to a word. When this is the case, another negative is 
sometimes used, to express a diminished kind of affirmation ; as, " He 
was not unkind." The negative terms are such as no, not, neither, 
nor, never, &c. 

For a fuller account of the construction and use of adverbs, see 
An. & Pr. Gr. 923-943. 

EXERCISES. 

Adverbs being undeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly 
in their position ; or in using as adverbs, words that are not so ; or 
in using adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors 
in the following sentences, as the Rules require : — 

(Rule 1). — 1. Point out the modifying words in the following sen- 
tences. If not adverbs, make them so, and give the Rule. 

Come quick. James does that very good. That was 
done excellent. Time moves rapid. Apparent slow people 
accomplish much if sufficient steady. You can read excel- 
lent well. It is real cold." 

2. In the following point out the adverb improperly used. Show 
why it is so ; change it for the proper term, and give the Rule. 

Thine often infirmities. Come the soonest day possible. 
The soonest time will be late enough. The then ministry 
opposed the measure. The condition where I found him 
was truly bad. He was here last year, since when I have 
not seen him. 

3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adverb 
(see Lesson 31), modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it ia 
placed as directed in Rule 3d and Explanation. 



124 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

(Rule 2). — 1. Point out the two negatives in the following sen- 
tences. Show why they are wrong; correct them, and give the 
Rule. 

I can not eat no more. He is not able to walk no fur- 
ther. We can not do that in no way. He will never be no 
taller. Never do nothing of the kind. Time and tide will 
not wait for no man. No man never did that. You must 
not drink no more. 

2. Make short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the 
following words: worthy, just, discreet, kind, obliging, agreeable, 
happy, firm, &c. Then prefix to these words the appropriate nega- 
tive prefix mentioned above. Then insert a negative word in each 
sentence, and mark the difference of meaning with each change; 
thus, "He is a worthy man," " He is an unworthy man," " He is not 
an unworthy man." 

(Rule 3). — fa In the following sentences, place the adverb as the 
Rule directs, provided the sense will thereby be clearly expressed. 

A man industrious eminently. He is agreeable always. 
He sweetly sings, charmingly converses, and prudently con- 
ducts himself on all occasions. He unaffectedly spoke. 
He manfully has contended for the prize, and certainly will 
obtain it. Time will wait never. He could have not done 
it. He will be always trusty. That disaster might have 
easily been prevented. That piece was executed beauti- 
fully. 

2. The following sentences have the adverb placed according to the 
Rule, but the sense and harmony of the sentence evidently require 
it to be in a different position. 

Men contend frequently for trifles. I only saw three 
persons. Of the books I sent him, he only read one. 
James can very well read. You should slowly write. He 
might plainly have told him. He not only saw her pleased, 
but greatly pleased. 

3. Write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain 
one or more adverbs correctly placed. [See List, Lesson 31]. 

4. Write short sentences,, each of which shall contain one of the 
following adverbs, viz., only, merely, solely, chiefly, first, at least, and 
tell the word which they modify. Place the adverbs in as many 
different positions, in each sentence as you can, so as to make sense, 
and mark the change of meaning. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 125 

Lesson 70. — Conjunctions, 

Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, 
phrases, or sentences; as, "He and I must go; 
but you may stay." 

special rules. 

Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, 
and causes of nouns and pronouns ; as, Do good, and seek peace." — 
41 Honor thy father and mother." 

EXPLANATION".— The reason of this Rule is, that words thus 
connected are for the most part in the same construction : that is, 
nouns connected must be in the same case, because they are nomina- 
tives to the same verb, or governed by the same noun, verb, or 
preposition ; and verbs thus connected have usually the same nomi- 
native. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use of pro- 
nouns, 

Obs. 1. When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, 
or when a contrast is stated with but, not, though, &c, the nomina- 
tive is generally repeated; as, "He may return, but Tie will not 
remain." 

Obs. 2. The relative after than, is usually in the objective case; 
as, u Alfred, than whom," &c. 

Obs. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing, denying, the conjunction 
that should be used, and not lest, but, but that ; as, "They feared 
that (not lest) he would die." 

Obs. 4. In the compound tenses, verbs connected in the same 
tense, have the auxiliary expressed with the first, and understood to 
the rest; de, "John can read, write, and spell." When different 
tenses are connected, the auxiliary must always be expressed ; as, 
44 He has come, but he mil not stay." 

Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentence, 
require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one : thus, 
1. In clauses or words simply connected — 

Both requires and; as, "Both he and I came." 

Either or; as, "Either he or I will come." 

Neither nor ; as, "Neither he nor I came." 

Whether or ; as, "Wliether he or I came." 

n* 



126 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

Tliough yet ; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust 

in him." 

Not only but also ; as, "Not only he, but also his bro- 
ther goes." 
2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 

The comparative degree requires than; as, "He is taller than I 
am." 

Other requires than ; as, "It is no other than he." 

Else than; as, " What else do you expect than this ? " 

J, s a s (expressing equality) ; as, "He is as tall as 

I am." 
jis , so (expressing equality) ; as, "As thy day is, so 

shall thy strength be." 
So as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, 

"He is not so learned as his brother." 
So that (expressing consequence); as, "He is so 

yveakjthat he cannot walk." 

Such as (expressing similarity); as, "He, or such 

as he." 

Note. — As and so, in the members of a comparison, are properly 
adverbs. 

EXPLANATION. — This Rule means, that when any of the corres- 
ponding terms above, stands in one member of a sentence, the other 
term should stand in the other member. After "though" "yet" is 
sometimes understood. 

Rule 3. — When a subsequent clause, or part of a sentence, is com- 
mon to two different but connected antecedent clauses, it must be equally 
applicable to both; as, "That work always has been, and always will 
be, admired" 

EXPLANATION. — In order to see whether sentences are correct 
according to this Rule, join the member of the sentence common to 
the two clauses, to each of them separately, so as to make two sen- 
tences. If both of the sentences are grammatically correct, and ex- 
press the sense intended, the sentence is right — if not, it is wrong, 
and must be corrected. Thus, for example, " He has not, and he 
can not, be censured," is wrong, because if you add the member " be 
censured" to the first clause, it will make " He has not be censured" 
which is incorrect, according to Sub-Rule 4 under Rule XVI. This 
must be corrected by inserting "been" after "has not," so as to 
read, " He has not been, and he cannot be, censured." The different 
clauses should be correctly marked by punctuation. 

This Rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two 
comparisons of a different nature and government. Thus, "He was 
more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio." Here, "as 



CONJUNCTIONS. 127 

Cir.thio" is applicable to the clause " so much admired" but can not 
be connected with " more beloved" In such sentences as this, the 
proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, and 
leave that of the second understood ; as, u He was more beloved 
thai) Cinthio, but not so much admired" (as Ointhio). 

EXERCISES. 

(Rule 1). — 1. In the following, point out the connected verbs. 
If they have the same nominative, put them in the same mood and 
tense. If they must be in different moods or tenses, repeat the 
nominative ; and if that is a noun, repeat it by its pronoun. Point 
out the connected nouns or pronouns, and put them in the same 
case» 

He reads and wrote well. If he say it, and does it, I am 
content. If he be at home, and is well, give him the letter. 
My father has read the book, and will return it to-morrow. 
James and me ran all the way. That is a small matter 
between you and I. Him and I are great friends, and so 
are Mary and me. Nobody knows that better than her and 
me. 

2. Write short sentences, in which two or more verbs are con- 
nected in the same mood and tense, and notice particularly Obs. 4. 
Put the verbs in the present — in the past — and in the present-perfect, 
&c. Express the same ideas, with the verbs in the passive voice. 

3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different 
moods and tenses, paying attention to Obs. 1 ; write others, con- 
taining two or more nouns or pronouns connected in the same case. 

(Rule 2). — 1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following 
sentences, make the second correspondent to the first, or the first to 
the second, as the sense requires. Supply the correspondent term 
where improperly omitted. 

He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for him. 
Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. That is so far 
as I am able to go. This book is equally good as that one. 
Nothing is so bad as it can not be worse. He was not only 
diligent, but successful in his studies. It is neither cold or 
hot. 

2. Write correct sentences, each of which shall contain one pair of 
the corresponding terms above, and state what they express. 

3. In the following sentences, point out the comparative degree, 
or other correspondent terms, and make the one correspond to the 
other, according to the Rule. 



128 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

James writes better as I do. There were more besides 
him engaged in that business. No more but two can play 
at this game. The days are longer in summer besides they 
are in winter. Has James no other book but this ? This 
is such conduct that I did not expect. It can be no other 
but he. They had no other book except this one. I 
would rather read as write. He had no sooner done the 
mischief but he repented. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain a word in 
the comparative degree, or the word other or such followed by the 
proper correspondent term. 

(Rule 3). — Make trial of the following sentences, as directed in 
the explanation. If either of the clauses, when joined with the mem- 
ber of the sentence common to both, makes a grammatical error, 
point it out and correct it. 

He always has, and he always will, be punctual. They 
might, and probably w T ere, good. James is taller, but not 
so strong as his brother. His book is not so good, though 
larger than I expected. This house is larger, but not so 
convenient as that one. I ever have, and I ever will say 
so. "He depends and confides in me," is as correct as, 
"He confides and depends upon me." I am older, but not 
so feeble as Thomas. Warm weather is pleasant, but not 
so bracing as cold. Iron is more useful, but not so valu- 
able as gold or silver. 



Lesson 71. — Interjections. 

Eule XX. — Interjections have no grammat- 
ical connection with the other words in a sen- 
tence. 

After interjections, pronouns of the first person are commonly in 
the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; as, "Ah 
me " — " thou ! " In neither, however, does the case depend on 
the interjection. In the objective, there is an ellipsis of the govern- 
ing word ; as, "Ah (pity) me ! " In the nominative, they are in the 
nominative independent, denoting the person addressed. 



GENERAL RULE. 129 

.Lesson 72. — General Rule. 

In every sentence, the icords employed, and 
the order in which they are arranged, shoidd 
be such as clearly and properly to express the 
idea intended ; and, at the same time, cdl the 
parts of the sentence shoidd correspond, and a 
regular and dependent construction be observed 
throughout 

See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 973 to 9^6. 

EXPLANATION. — This may be regarded as a general rule, appli- 
cable to every case, and therefore comprehending all the preceding. 
Though these embrace almost every thing belonging to the proper 
construction of sentences, yet there will sometimes occur, instances 
of impropriety in the use, and arrangement, and connection of words, 
for the avoiding or correcting of which, no very specific rules can be 
given. 

Among the evils to be guarded against under this Rule, are the 
following, — 

1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly convey 

the idea intended, or which convey another with equal pro- 
priety. 

2. The arrangement of words or clauses in such a way that their 

relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to 
be perceived. 

3. The separating of adjuncts from their principals, and placing 

them so that they may be joined to words to which they do 
not belong. 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their ante- 

cedents. 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or 

possessive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse. 

EXERCISES. 

EXPLANATION. — The following sentences are not grammatically 
incorrect, but from some of the causes mentioned above, arc ob- 
scure, inelegant, ambiguous, or unintelligible. Point out the impro- 
priety, correct it, and give a reason for the correction. 

(1) The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, 
wheeled about, and halted with the river on their back. 



130 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR, 

(2) Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first 
opened the way into Asia. (3) Lost, a new umbrella be- 
longing to a gentleman with a curiously carved ivory head, 
(4) Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely 
deserved the name of man. (5) A farmer went to a law- 
yer and told him that his bull had gored his ox. 



Lesson 73,— Ellipsis. 

Rule 1. — An JElfyisis, or omission of words, 
is admissible, when they can be supplied by the 
mind with such certainty and readiness as not 
to obscure the sense. Thus, 

Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, 
and he was a good man ;" we say, " He was a learned, wise, and 
good man." 

EXPLANATION. — There is a constant tendency among men, to 
express their ideas in the fewest words possible. Whenever, there- 
fore, a word can be spared from a sentence without obscuring its 
meaning, that word, is often left out. This is called ellipsis. Thus, 
instead of the full form of the sentence, as follows, " I rise at six 
hours of the clock in the morning, I breakfast at seven hours of the 
clock in the morning, I go to school at nine hours of the clock, and 
study till twelve hours of the clock," we can say, (and be equally 
well understood), " I rise at six, breakfast at seven, go to school at 
nine, and study till twelve." This is the origin of abbreviated sen- 
tences ; and in order to parse such, or to understand their grammat- 
ical construction, the words left out must be supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, leave out such words as may be 
omitted without obscuring the sense. 

He had an affectionate father and an affectionate mother. 
You may read, or you may write, as you please. Will you 
study, or will you not study ? I have been at London, and 
I have seen the queen. A house and a garden. He would 
neither go, nor would he send. 



ELLIPSIS. 131 

2. In the following sentences, supply the words left out, so as to 
show their full construction. 

It is six o'clock ; we may study till seven. We have 
done it, but you have not. John will read, and Thomas 
write letters. This apple is larger than that, but not so 
sweet. Give this apple to James, that to Robert, and the 
other to Mary. I have heard and read much about Wash- 
ington and the Revolution. "Sun, stand thou still upon 
Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon." 



Lesson 74. — Ellipsis not Alloivable. 

Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not alloivable, when 
it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, 
or be attended with an impropriety ; for ex- 
ample, — 

"We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen," 
should be, u We know that which we do know, and testify that which 
we have seen." 

EXPLANATION. — The sense will always be obscured, when on 
account of improper ellipsis, the construction of the sentence is ren- 
dered doubtful, or is not clearly and readily perceived. When a sen- 
tence or clause is emphatic, ellipsis is less allowable. The antecedent 
to the relative, except in poetry, is seldom omitted; and the relative 
itself, if in the nominative case, never. The article should be re- 
peated when a different form of it is required; as, "A horse and an 
ass." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the improper ellipsis. Show 
why it is improper, and correct it. 

Cicero made orations, both on public and private occa- 
sions. He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew. Thou 
hast that is thine. Thine the kingdom, the power, and the 
glory. Depart in peace, be ye warmed, clothed, and filled. 
I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. That is the best 
can be said of him. He has a house and orchard. We 
must all go the way we shall not return. 



132 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

!Lesson 75. — Model of Syntactical Parsing. 

In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 
word etymologically, [See Lesson 36], to state its relation to other 
words in the sentence, and the rules by which these relations are 
governed. To illustrate this more clearly, the same sentence parsed 
etymologically, Lesson 37, is here passed syntactically. 

"Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet 

wiser." 

" Give," is a verb, transitive, irregular ; give, gave, given ; in the 
imperative, active, second person, singular, and agrees with 
its nominative thou, understood. Rule VIII. "A verb 
agrees," &c. 

" Instruction," is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed 
by give. Rule X. " A transitive verb," &c. 

" To," is a preposition, and expresses the relation between give and 
man, as its remote object. 

" A," is an article, indefinite, belongs to man, and shows it to be 
used indefinitely. Rule III. u The article a or an is put," &c. 

"Wise," is an adjective, compared, wise, wiser, wisest; and ex- 
presses a quality of man. Rule II. " An adjective or parti- 
ciple," &c. 

"Man," is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by 
to. Rule XI. " A preposition governs," &c. 

" And," is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two clauses. 
Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. 

" He," is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nominative, sin- 
gular ; stands instead of man, with which it agrees. Rule IV. 
"Pronouns agree," &c, and is the subject or nominative of 
will be. Rule VI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. 

" Will be," is a verb, intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been ; in the 
future, indicative ; third person, singular ; and affirms of its 
subject he, with which it agrees. Rule VIII. "A verb 
agrees," &c. 

"Yet," is an adverb, modifying wiser, -Rule XVIII. "Adverbs 
modify," &c. 

"Wiser," is an adjective, comparative degree; loise, wiser, wisest; 
and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. Rule II. "An 
adjective or participle," &c. 



PROMISCUOUS ^EXERCISES. 133 

Questions similar to those J suggested at 'the close of Lesson 37, 
may be proper here aIso c 

For Exercises in Syntactical Parsing, the pupil may now return to 
Lesson 38, or take any plain passage in the reading lessons of the 
Spelling Book ; or the ordinary reading books used in the school, 
may be used for this purpose, as the teacher may direct. 



Lesson 76* — Promiscuous Exercises on the Rules 
of Syntax. 

In order to correct the following Exercises, examine each sentence 
carefully, and see wherein it is wrong. See, first, whether words 
that should agree, do so — the verb with its nominative — the numeral 
adjective with its noun — the pronoun personal and relative, with its 
substantive ; secondly, whether nouns and pronouns are in the 
case which the word governing them requires ; and lastly, whether 
the words are arranged in the order which the Rules require. Hav- 
ing found the error, correct it, and give the Rule for the correction. 
These Exercises, when corrected, or in the time of correcting, may 
be used as Exercises in Syntactical parsing. 

1. John writes beautiful. I shall never do so no more. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted, Was you 
present at last meeting ? He need not be in so much haste. 
He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him who they 
seek is in the house. George or I is the person. They or 
he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty men. 
Those set of books was a valuable present. That pillar is 
sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most extreme 
vanity. The trees are remarkable tall. 

2. He acted bolder than was expected. This is he who 
I gave the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who 
do you lodge with now ? He was born at London, but he 
died in Bath. If he be sincere, I am satisfied. Her father 
and her were at church. The master requested him and I 
to read more distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flat- 
terers flatter as long, and no longer than they have expec- 
tations of gain. John told the same story as you told. 
This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 

3. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of 
pain. Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of 
Jesse, was the youngest of his brothers. You was very 



134 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

kind to him, he said. "Well, says I, what does thou think 
of him now ? James is one of those boys that was kept in 
at school, for bad behavior. Thou, James, will deny the 
deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. We 
need not to be afraid. It is all fell down. 

4. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. 
You should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who 
spoke first. Do you like ass milk ? Is it me that you 
mean ? Who did you buy your grammar from ? If one 
takes a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead them 
astray. Neither man nor woman were present. I am more 
taller than you. She is the same lady who sang so sweetly. 
After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Phari- 
see. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine iniquities 
infinite ? There is six that studies grammar. 



Lesson 77. — Punctuation. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- 
tences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to convey 
to the reader the exact sense, and assist him in the proper delivery. 
The principal stops are the following : — 

The comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) the period or full 
stop ( . ) the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation ( ! ) 
the parenthesis ( ) and the dash ( — ) 

The comma represents the shortest pause ; the semicolon, a pause 
double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double that of the 
semicolon : and the period, a pause double that of the colon. 

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader 
or speaker. 

The Comma- usually separates those parts of a sentence which 
though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a 
pause between them. 

The Semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, which 
are less closely connected than those which are separated by a 
comma. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less 
conected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so 
independent as to require a period. 

The Period is used when a sentence is complete, with respect to 
the construction and the sense intended ; as, " God made all things." 



CAPITALS. 135 

"By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions is 
tamed." " In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits of both 
the active and the passive virtues." 

The period must be used after all abbreviations ; as, " A. D." 
"M. A." "Fol." 

For rules for punctuation, see An. & Pr. Gram., 990, &c. 



Lesson 78. — Capitals. 

In composition, the following words begin with capital letters : 

1 . The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of interrogation, 
or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are 
independent of each other. 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are written in capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as Grecian, 
Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon ; as, 
Always remember this ancient maxim : " Know thyself." 

9. Common nouns, when personified : as, " Come, gentle Springy 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; 
as, Euclid's Elements of Geometrv ; " " Goldsmith's Deserted Vil- 
lage." 

Note. Other words besides the preceding, may begin with capi- 
tals, when they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject of 
the composition. 



136 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 



PART FOURTH.— PROSODY. 

Lesson 79. — Prosody. 

Prosody consists of two parts; Elocution and 
Versification. 

I. ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the 
proper management of the voice in reading or 
speaking, and comprises Accent, Quantity, Em- 
phasis, Pause and Tone. 

II. VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain 
number of long and short syllables according 
to certain rules. Composition so arranged is 
called Verse or Poetry. 

Verse is of two kinds ; Rhyme and Blank verse. Rhyme is a 
similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines arranged 
in a certain order. Poetry consisting of such lines, is sometimes 
called Rhyme. Blank-VERSE is poetry without rhyme. 

Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain number of parts 
called Feet. The arrangement of these feet in a line according to the 
accent, is called Metre ; and the dividing of a line into its component 
feet is called Scanning. 

All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two 
syllables, and four of three syllables ; the long syllable being marked 
by a straight line ( — ) and the short, by a curve, (^) as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISSYLLABLE, 

A Trochee — ^ A Dactyl — ^ — 

An Iambus -^ — An Amphibrach ^ — ^- 

A Spondee An Anapasts w w — 

A Pyrrhic -^ w A Tribrach w — - ^ 

In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are short. 

The Metres in most common use, are the Iambic, Trochaic and 
Anapaestic. 



COMPOSITION. 137 

Iambic Metre is adapted to grave and serious subjects ; it has the 
second, fourth, and other even syllables, accented or long ; and the 
first, third, and other uneven syllables, unaccented, or short. Of this 
verse there are various kinds, some having two feet, some three, some 
four, some five. This hist is called heroic measure, andis the same 
that is used by Milton, Youug, Thomson, Pollok, &c. 

When the last line of a stanza is extended to six feet, it is called 
Alexandrine. 

Trochaic Metre is quick and lively, and adapted to gay and 
cheerful composition. It comprises verses of one and a half, two, 
three, four, five, and sometimes six feet ; sometimes followed by an 
additional syllable. 

Anapaestic Metre consists of lines of two, three, four Metres or 
Anapaests, with sometimes an additional syllable. 



Lesson 80. — Composition. 

Composition is the putting of words together in sentences, for the 
purpose of expressing our ideas in writing, in the best manner, ac- 
cording to the Rules of Grammar, and the best usages of the lan- 
guage. 

Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar, and especially 
those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed with a view to 
exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of composition, by leading 
him to vary his ideas, and to express the same idea in different forms ; 
to detect and correct errors which often occur in the construction of 
sentences; and so to put him on his guard against similar errors; 
and also to form correct sentences for himself, according to the par- 
ticular directions laid down under the various Rules. In committing 
his own ideas to writing, in the form of compositions, then, all he has 
to do, is to endeavor to select the proper words, and to combine these 
so as to express his meaning correctly, according to the Rules with 
which he is now supposed to be familiar. The few following hints 
may be useful. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO YOUXG COMPOSERS. 

1. Spell every word correctly. Pay proper attention to the use of 
capitals ; always using them where they should be, and never where 
they should not be. [See Lesson 78].* 

2. Carefully avoid all vulgar expressions and cant phrases, and 
never use words which you do not understand, or which do not cor- 
rectly express your meaning. 

3. At the end of the line, never divide a word of one syllable, nor 

12* 



138 INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR. 

any word in the middle of a syllable. If there should not be room at 
the end of the line for the whole syllable, do not begin it at all, but 
carry it to the next line. 

4. When you have written what you intended, look over it care- 
fully ; see if you can improve it by a better choice of words, or by a 
better arrangement of them, so as to express your meaning more 
clearly ; and mark the changes proposed. 

5. Copy the whole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a manner as 
you can, guarding against blots and erasures, which disfigure any 
writing, dotting your i's, crossing your £'s, and pointing the whole in 
the best manner you can, so that any person, as well as yourself, may 
easily read and understand it. 

6. Try to make every new composition better than the one before 
it. Never write carelessly, and though it may be a little difficult at 
first, a little practice will soon make it easy. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

The more simple exercises in composition are, for young beginners, 
so much the better. They should not be required to write about any 
thing with which they are not perfectly familiar. 

1. The following is a very simple and easy exercise. A class of 
pupils may be directed to look at a certain picture in the Spelling 
Book or Geography, or any other book at hand ; and the teacher may 
excite their attention by asking some questions, or telling them some- 
thing respecting it, and then direct each one, either in his seat or at 
home, to write a description of the picture, together with any ideas 
that occur to him on the subject. This method will furnish an end- 
less variety of easy and useful exercises. 

2. From pictures, the attention may be turned to real objects. 
The class may now be directed to any object or objects within their 
view, which they may be required to describe and give their ideas 
about, as before ; for example, the school-house and its furniture— the 
business of the day, in the form of a journal— the principal objects in 
view to the south of the school-house— to the north— to the east— to 
the west. Each may be directed to describe his own house, and the 
leading objects in view from it in different directions, or any object 
which he may choose to select. 

3. Another class of easy and interesting subjects may be found in 
describing familiar objects in natural history— the various seasons of 
the year, with their employments and amusements— the various ope- 
rations of the farmer, and different mechanic arts— narratives of any 
accidents, or striking events that may have occurred. 

4. Short familiar epistolary correspondence, real or imaginary. 
One pupil may be directed to write to another concerning any thing 
he pleases. A post-office might be set up in the school, with its let- 



COMPOSITION. 139 

ter-box, to be opened at stated seasons, and its contents read for the 
amusement and instruction of the school. This exercise, because 
voluntary, would be entered into with spirit, and prove of great 
benefit. 

5. Themes on familiar subjects may next be assigned, such as the 
following: 

Point out the evils of the following vices and improprieties, and 
make such remarks respecting them as you think proper; viz., Lying, 
Stealing, Swearing, Disobedience to Parents, Sabbath-breaking, Dis- 
contentment, Intemperance, 111 nature, Violent passions, Penurious- 
ness, Idleness, Cruelty to animals, Bad company, &c. 

Point out the benefits arising from Truth, Honesty, Sobriety, Love 
to God, Love to men, Good nature, Industry, Contentment, Kindness 
to the poor, Keeping good company, Proper amusements, &c., and 
make such remarks as you think proper respecting them. 

In all cases with beginners, it is better to require them to give their 
own thoughts on familiar subjects with which they are acquainted, 
than to give them subjects of an abstract nature, or of which they 
can not be supposed to have much knowledge. In the former case, 
they will be likely to give their own thoughts in their own way ; in 
the latter, they will have to resort to books, and instead of giving 
their own ideas, will be apt to copy the writings of others, without 
perhaps, well understanding them. 

6. When the compositions are prepared, the errors in Grammar 
should be pointed out and explained ; mistakes in orthography, capi- 
tals, punctuation, &c, corrected, or pointed out to be corrected, and 
then the whole copied, in a correct and plain manner, into a book 
kept for that purpose. 

Compositions of a higher order than those which have been sug- 
gested, would be above the years and acquirements of those for 
whom this little work is intended, and would therefore be improper. 
Having gone through these Lessons, pupils, though young, will be 
well prepared for taking up, with ease and advantage, the " Analyti- 
cal and Practical Grammar of the English Language," and for going 
through a more thorough and critical course. 

[the end.] 




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4 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS 

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The practical and higher arithmetics of this series, wherever used, 
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So much has been said by Teachers in commendation of Stod- 
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" I have examined ' Stoddard's American Intellectual Arithmetic, , and 
cheerfully recommend it to teachers and parents as a valuable elementary 
work, and one well adapted to the wants of pupils in the first stages of 
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" Stoddard's Arithmetical Series is now in general use in the schools of 
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KEETELS' FRENCH METHOD. 

A New Method of Learning the French Language. By Jean 
Gustave Keetels, Professor of French and German in the Brooklyn 
Polytechnic Institute. 12mo. Price $1.00. 

A Key to the New Method in French, By J. G. Keetels. 1 vol. 
12mo. Price 40 cents. 

This work contains a clear and methodical expose of the principles 
of the language, on a plan entirely new. The arrangement is admi- 
rable. The lessons are of a suitable length, and within the compre- 
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well adapted to the purpose for which *they are intended, of reading, 
writing, and speaking the language. The Grammar part is com- 
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The book possesses many attractions for the teacher and student, 
and is destined to become a popular school-book. It has already 
been introduced into many of the principal schools and colleges in 
the country. 

The following testimonials have lately been received : — 

" I have examined ' Keetels' New Method of learning the French Lan- 
guage,' and find it admirably adapted for conveying a thorough knowledge 
of the French language. It is an easy and sure method of both writing 
and speaking French with accuracy and elegance. 1 ' — Daniel Lynch, S, J., 
Director of Studies in Gonzaga College, Washington. 

" The * New Method of Learning the French Language,' by Professor 
Keetels, appears to be exceedingly well adapted as an introduction into 
the study of French. It is emphatically a practical book, and bears the 
mark that it has resulted from the author's own experience in teaching. 
I shall take pleasure in soon giving it the test of a trial in my own Insti- 
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Institute, Philadelphia. 

u I have examined several works designed for pupils studying the 
French language, and among them ' Keetels' New Method of the French.' 
The last work I consider superior to any other which I have examined, 
And shall use it in my classes as the best text-book upon the subject." — 
S. A. Parrand, Trenton, N. J. 

" I take great pleasure in adding my testimony to the value of 'Keetels' 
New Method of Learning the French Language,' as a school book. It will 
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LOOMIS'S PHYSIOLOGY. 
Elements of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene, 

By Prof. J. R. Loomis, President of Louisburgh University, 
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" I have examined with some care the Physiology of President Loomis. 
It seems to me clear, concise, well arranged, and in all respects admirably 
adapted for the purposes of a text-book in schools and colleges. It has 
been used by the classes in this University with entire satisfaction. "—Rev. 
M. B. Anderson, D. Z>., President of Rochester University. 

" We have used Loomis 1 s Physiology in our school, and cheerfully rec- 
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author has anticipated the wants of the school-room. He has done much 
to draw the attention of teachers to the importance of the study, and the 
general adoption of his treatise, as a text-book in our schools, would be an 
advance in the work of Education." — John G. McMynn, Principal of Ra- 
cine High School. ^ 

" I have carefully examined Loomis's Physiology, and consider it the 
best work which has yet been published for the use of schools. I shall 
commend it at the next meeting of the teachers of our district." — A. J. 
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Lambert' s Plates of Pictorial Anatomy. 

These large illustrations are carefully drawn from good author- 
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Plate 1. Kepresents the skeleton of the Human Figure 33 inches 
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Plate 2. Human Figure 33 inches high, developing the muscles, 
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Plate 5. Human Figure 33 inches high — a beautiful presenta- 
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11 Having had for some time practical experience in the use of Melville's 
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of the author's skill and genius. One quarto volume. Price (re- 
duced) $2.00. 

Mr. Oliver B. Goldsmith, the author of this System of Penman- 
ship, stands preeminently at the head of his profession. For twenty 
years he has pursued successfully the teaching of Penmanship at his 
Academy on Broadway, Xew York, receiving for five years the 
award of the American Institute, for the best specimens of off-hand 
penmanship, with numerous testimonials of his skill and genius 
from all parts of the country. 

His System, the result of his twenty years of practical attention to 
the Art of Penmanship, is now first offered for the use of Public and 
Private Schools, Academies, and Families, and the Publishers are 
confident that the numerous teachers and friends of education 
throughout the land will be glad to receive and adopt for practice 
the beautiful and practical handwriting of so accomplished a pen- 
man. 

The Copies are exact fac-similes of the author's own hand-writing, 
engraved in the best manner on steel, and the quality of the paper, 
and clearness of print, are intended to be superior to that of any 
books of the kind in use either in America or Europe. 

The Series is comprised in five books, a number fully ample for 
the use of schools for either sex. It is proposed at some future time 
to add two or three books expressly for the use of ladies in the higher 
classes of our schools and seminaries. 



10 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS 

The Elements of Intellectual Philosophy. By Fran- 
cis Wayland, D. D. 1 vol. 12mo. Price $1.25. 

This clearly written book, from the pen of a scholar of eminent 
ability, and who has had the largest experience in the education of 
the human mind, is unquestionably at the head of text-books in In- 
tellectual Philosophy. It contains the substance of Lectures during 
several years, delivered to the classes in Intellectual Philosophy in 
Brown University. Being intended to serve the purposes of a text- 
book, the important truths of the science have been presented and 
illustrated, rather than the inferences which may be drawn from 
them, or the doctrines which they may presuppose. The compass 
of the volume is adapted to the time usually allotted to the study of 
this subject in the colleges and higher seminaries of our country. It 
is divided into eight chapters on the following subjects : — The Per- 
ceptive Faculties — Consciousness, Attention, and Reflection — 
Original Suggestion, or the Intuitions of the Intellect — Abstrac- 
tion — Memory, Reasoning — Imagination — Taste — also an Ap- 
pendix of interesting matter. The author's practical suggestions on 
the cultivation of the several faculties of the mind, aiding the stu- 
dent's efforts to discipline and strengthen his intellectual energies, 
and the numerous references to books of easy access, specifying the 
places where topics treated of are more fully discussed, make this 
book a valuable addition to the readable books of any teacher or pro- 
fessional man. 

The Exhibition Speaker and Gymnastic Book, con- 
taining Farces, Dialogues, and Tableaux, with Exercises for Dec- 
lamation, in Prose and Verse. Also a Treatise on Oratory and 
Elocution, Hints on Dramatic Characters, Costumes, Position on 
the Stage, Making up, etc., etc., with illustrations. Carefully 
compiled and arranged for School Exhibitions, by P. A. Fitz- 
gerald. To which is added a complete system of Calisthenics 
and Gymnastics, with instructions for Teachers and Pupils, illus- 
trated by numerous engravings. 1 vol. 12mo. 75 cents. 

" There are books enough containing exercises for Speaking; but, till 
Mr. Fitzgerald brought forth this compilation of instructions, we have wit- 
nessed no effort to inform pupils how to deliver their parts artistically, and 
at the same time naturally. . . . The author has taken great care in 
the matter of elementary instruction. . . . There have also been given 
Valuable directions in the matter of gestures, which every schoolboy 
should read and commit to memory. Very full instructions are given in 
gymnastics and calisthenics. We apprehend a general rising of public 
sentiment to this department . . . The sale of Ten Thousand copies 
evidences that it has been found to have a value which other ' Speakers ■ 
do not possess." — New York Teacher. 



PUBLISHED BY SHELDON AND COMPANY. 11 

Universal History. By E. P. Peabody. Arranged to 

illustrate Bem's Chronological Charts. Complete in one vol. 
Quarto, with Blanks. Price $1.25. 

After ample experiment of their efficiency, the Charts of Gen. 
Bern were furnished by order of the government to all the high 
schools and colleges in France. The use of these charts by the plan 
and full illustrations of this book will give students in history such 
a mastery of the subject as cannot be obtained by the most careful 
study of events and dates according to the methods often pursued. 
From the text of this book the student is required to fill up the 
charts with colors. As he progresses, each color will disseminate 
the career of a nation in time as far as there is extant chronological 
data for it, and thus the history of different nations will form of one 
chart & symmetrical picture. Thus the outlines of history are pre- 
sented to the eye for future reference and additional data by the 
student, as pupils now so profitably produce geographical maps from 
the detailed description of books. The result is their own work, and 
an interesting proof of their intelligence, attention, and discrimina- 
tion. 

Teachers are invited to an examination of this method of illus-** 
trating the studies of their scholars in history, when it will be seen 
that the time given to this study may be made interesting and very 
profitable to themselves and the pupils under their charge. 

Fitcll'S Mapping Plates ; designed for Learners in Ge- 
ography, being a collection of Plates prepared for Delineating 
Maps of the World, and Countries forming its principal subdivi- 
sions, viz., 1. The World. 2. United States. 3. North America. 
4. South America. 5. A State. 6. Mexico and Guatemala. 
7. Great Britain and Ireland. 8. Europe. 9. Southern Europe. 
10. Germany. 11. Africa. 12. Asia. 13. Atlantic Ocean. 14. Pa- 
cific Ocean. By George W. Fitch. Price 30 cents. 

The attention of the public is respectfully called to the above 
plates, and to the advantages they are calculated to afford in the 
study of Geography. They are prepared with the suitable and 
requisite lines of latitude and longitude, for maps of the world, and 
the countries forming its principal subdivisions, and are designed to 
be used in connection with the school atlases in common use, as well 
as with outline maps. With these Plates, the pupil is able to com- 
mence, at once, the delineation of maps, without the difficult and 
perplexing labor of drawing the meridians and parallels — a labor 
which generally consumes the time of both teacher and scholar, to 
an extent entirely disproportionate to any good which may be de- 
rived thereby. 



12 SCHOOL AND COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS. 

Hazen's Speller and Definer. The Speller and Definer, 

or Class-Book No. 2, designed to answer the purposes of a spelling- 
book, and to supersede the necessity of the use of a dictionary as a 
class-book. By E. Hazen, A. M. Price 20 cents. 

D3^ Over 500,000 volumes of this book have been sold. 

This Speller and Definer was first published in 1829, and has stood 
the test of the school-room successfully to the present day. It was 
thoroughly revised by the author in 1857, and is now called superior 
to any other book of the kind in use. At the time it was first pub- 
lished, it was the practice in nearly all the schools to try to commit 
to memory Walker's School Dictionary, but through the influence 
of this book dictionaries in this application were nearly banished in 
a few years. 

Hazen's Symbolic Spelling Book, With 553 Cuts. 

Price 20 cents. 
Hazen's Symbolic Spelling Book. Part 1st, 288 Cuts. Price 

10 cents. 
Hazen's Symbolic Spelling Book. Part 2d, 265 Cuts. Price 

12 cents. 

The Symbolic Speller is intended to precede Hazen's Speller and 
Definer. From the reading lessons of this spelling book, pupils may 
learn the meaning and application of a great number of words which 
will serve as a good foundation for the explanation of others. 

Miles's United States Speller. A new work, containing 

upwards of fifteen thousand of the most common English words. 
Price 13 cents. 

The author of this work is an old Practical Teacher. The ar- 
rangements and classification are original and strictly progressive ; 
and in Orthography and Pronunciation, the best standard authors, 
writers, and speakers, have been consulted. 

These Spelling-Books are designed to accompany Webb's Series 
of Normal Headers. 

Kirkliam'S Elocution. 12mo. 357 pages. Price 75 

cents. 

This is one of the best Elocutions ever printed. It contains a 
varied and interesting selection of very useful matter, carefully 
arranged. It is a standard work, and now used in some of the best 
schools in the country ; among which are the Normal School, Phil- 
adelphia : Lower Canada College ; Toronto Academy, etc. 



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